I 



1 




Class. 
Book. 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 






AN 



ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL 



GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

« i 

1.ATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY, AND AUTHOR OF THE 
SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAME PLAN, ETC. 



4/T056S 



NEW YORK 

PUBLISHED BY PRATT, WOODFORD, & CO., 
1849. 



0^ 






=>£> 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, 

By PETER BULLIONS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for 
the Northern District of New York. 



STEREOTYPED BY C. C. SAVAGE, 

13 Chambers Street, N. Y. 



PREFACE. 



This work is prepared on a more extended plan than the " Principles of 
English Grammar," and is intended to occupy a higher plac,e in the " Series 
of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan." Since that 
«t was first published, a greater interest has been taken in the subject of 
ration generally, than for a long period before. Difference of opinion, 
/arious subjects, has led to discussion — discussion to investigation, and 
stigation to the discovery and establishment of truth. As a consequence 
his, that which was sound and stable before has been confirmed — many 
•ts that were doubtful have been settled — new and improved methods 
avestigating subjects, and of imparting instruction, have been adopted, 
the whole subject of education, in both theory and practice, has been 
meed much beyond what it was at any former period. In this onward 
•, Tess, the subject of English grammar has not been left behind. Teach- 
• c in both higher and lower seminaries, have given it their attention — 
iOrities have been compared— original investigations have been made — 
vs have been interchanged, privately and through the press — all result- 
ing in the advancement of this branch of study. In accordance with these 
movements, many suggestions have been made to the author of this work 
for its improvement; all of them entitled to respect and consideration from 
the sources from which they came, and the friendly manner in which they 
have been communicated ; and many of them no less for their intrinsic 
value and importance. Several new works, also, on this subject have been 
published, both in this country and in Britain, which have added something, 
in different ways, to former attainments. To all those, I am indebted for 
many suggestions here carried out. 

This, though not essentially different from the former, is yet in some 
respects a new work. It has been almost entirely rewritten. Corrections, 
where thought necessary, have been made. The whole is enlarged more 
than one third. The subject of Analysis, wholly omitted in the former 
work, is here introduced in its proper place ; and to an extent in accordance 
with its importance. Many questions on disputed points have been exam- 
ined with much care ; and something it is hoped has been done to contribute 



* „ PREFACE, 

to this settlement. And when this required more space than was proper to 
be taken up, in the body of the work, the discussion has been thrown into 
the Appendix. A much greater variety of exercises has been introduced at 
every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To every part 
of speech, an oral exercise, of the inductive kind, has been annexed as a 
specimen of the way in which the mind of the learner may be trained to 
think and reason on the subject, and prepared to profit more by the exercises 
that follow. 

By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the para- 
graphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient, and 
is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable. 

The Syntaxes much fuller than in the former work; and though the 
rules are not different, they are arranged in a different order, so that all that 
belongs to one subject is collected under one head, instead of being scattered 
in different places, and the proper subordination of parts is exhibited in a 
series of subordinate rules, wherever it was necessary. In this way the 
whole is rendered more compact — the number of leading rules is reduced — 
and the unity of each subject is better preserved. 

In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony, and 
adaptation to the practical operations of the schoolroom, have been particularly 
attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced ; at the same time, 
where it was thought that a change would be an improvement, it has been 
made. It was felt that a work on this subject, of a higher grade, and more 
suited to the wants of higher seminaries, and more advanced students, with- 
out detracting from its simplicity and practical character, was wanted, and the 
aim has been to supply this want ; while at the same time its relation to the 
series, of which it is intended to form a part, has not only been preserved, 
but rendered more close and intimate. 

With a grateful sense of past kindnesses, the Author now commits the re- 
sult of his labors to the favorable consideration of a candid and enlightened 
public, and especially to that of the Teachers throughout the United States. 

March 23, 1 849, 



INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Grammar, Definition and Division of page 9 

PART I — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters, Division and Power of 10 

Syllables 13 

Spelling, Rules for 14 

Capitals, Use of 16 

PART II. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Words, General Divisions of 4ft 17 

Parking of 18 

Parts of Speech . .18 

Nouns, Definition and Division of 19 

Observations on, and Kinds of 19 

Accidents of 20 

Person of— Observations on 21 

Gender of 23 

Observations on 23 

Exercises on 24 

Number, Definition of 25 

Plural Rules for 25 

Irregular 26 

Observations on 29 

Exercises on 26-29 

Case of, General Rules for 31, 32 

Nominative, Use of 32 

Construction of 155, 156, 161 

Possessive, Use of— how formed 32 

Observations on 32 

Construction of 172 

Objective, Use of 32 

Governed by Active Transitive Verbs 163 

Prepositions 165 

Without a governing Word 167 

Declension of 32 

Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on 34 

Exercises on 35 

Article, Parsing of, and Exercises on 36, 37 

Construction of 147 

Adjectives. Definition and Division of 38 

Numeral Classes of : 39 

Comparison of 39 

Rules for „ 40 

Irregular 41 

Not compared 42 

Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on 42, 43 

Exercises on 44 

Construction of 142 

Pronouns, Definition and Division of 45 

Personal, simple, Declension of .45^ 46 

1 # 



6 CONTENTS. 

Pronouns, Personal, Observations on ......................... page 46 

Compound .48 

Parsing of, and Oral Exercises on > 49 

Exercises on 49 

Construction of 150 

Relative Declension and Use of. 50, 51 

Compound 52 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 53 

Construction of 153 

Interrogative and Responsive of 54 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 55 

Adjective, Definition and Division of 55, 56 

Possessive of 56 

Distributive of .57 

«| Demonstrative of 57 

Indefinite of 57 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 58 

Construction of 142 

Verbs, Definition of 59 

Transitive and Intransitive 60 

Oral and other Exercises on 61 

Division of 61 

Auxiliary Use of—" Shall," " Will," &c 62 

Exercises on 65 

Anomalous Use of. - 65 

Inflection of, Accidents of. 66 

Voice Active 66 

Passive 67 

Moods, Division of 68 

Indicative 68 

Potential 69 

Subjunctive 69 • 

Construction of 173 

Imperative 70 

Infinitive 70 

Construction of 177 

Tenses, Division of 71 

Of the Indicative Mood 71 

Of the Potential Mood 73 

Of the Subjunctive Mood 74 

Of the Imperative Mood 75 

Of the Infinitive Mood 75 

Construction of 183 

Participles, Division of - 76 

in ing in a passive Sense . . 77 

as a Verbal Noun.. 78 

Construction of. -180 

Number and Person of. -. 78 

Conjugation of 79 

Of the Irregular Verb " to be" - - 80 

Of Regular Verb " to love," active Voice - 85 

Oral Exercise and Exercises on 87-89 

Negative Form 90 

Interrogative Form 91 

Progressive Form 92 



CONTENTS. 7 

Vebbs, Progressive Form, Exercises on page 92 

Passive Voice 93 

Observations on, Exercises on 95 

Parsing of , 83 

Irregular 96 

Defective 101 

Impersonal 102 

Exercises 103 

Construction of 157 

Adverbs, Definition of 103 

Classification of 104 

Formation and Derivation of 105 

Comparison of 106 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 106, 107 

Construction of t 186 

Prepositions, Definition and List of 108 

Observations on 109 

Parsing of, and Exercises on 110 

Construction of 165, 168 

Interjections, Definition and List of 110, 111 

Parsing Ill 

Construction of * 193 

Conjunctions, Definition and Division of Ill 

Observations on 112 

Parking of, and Exercises on 112, 113 

Construction of 189 

Parsing, different Kinds of 113 

Etymological Method of 114 

Model of 115 

Exercises in , 118 

PART III. — SYNTAX. 

Sentences, different Kinds of. 124 

Analysis of 124 

Simple, its Parts 124 

Subject of 126 

M odifications of 127 

Predicate of 129 

Modifications of 131 

Compound Definition of 131 

Clauses of, different Kinds 132 

Connexion of 132 

Abridged Propositions 134 

Analysis, Directions for 135 

Models of 136 

Exercises in 139 

Construction of, General Principles 140 

Syntax, Parts of 140 



I Substantives in Apposition 141 

II Adjective with a Substantive 142 

Comparatives and Superlatives 144 

III Article and its Noun * 147 

IV Pronoun and its Antecedent 150 



8 CONTENTS. 

IV Pronoun, Special Rules . . . . page 150 

V Relative and its Antecedent 153 

VI The Subject Nominative 155 

VII The Nominative Independent, Special Rules 156 

VIII The Verb and its Subject or Nominative 157 

Special Rules for 157, 159 

IX The Predicate Nominative 161 

X The Objective governed by Verbs 163 

Special Rules 163, 164 

XI The Objective governed by Prepositions.... 165 

without a governing Word 167 

XII Prepositions after certain Words 168 

XIII Possessive governed by Substantives 172 

XIV Subjunctive Mood 173 

XV Infinitive Mood 177 

Special Rules 177-179 

XVI Participles 180 

Special Rules 181 

XVII.. ..Connexion of Tenses 183 

XVIII.. Adverbs— Special Rules 186 

XIX. . . . Conjunctions 189 

Special Rules 189-191 

XX Interjections 193 

General Rule 193 

Ellipses — when admissible 194 

when not admissible 195 

Parsing, syntactical, Definition of, Model of 197 

Exercises, promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax 199 

Improper Expressions, List of 203 

Punctuation 204 

Comma, Rules for 204 

Semicolon, do , 206 

Colon do 206 

Period 207 

Interrogation 207 

Other Marks used in Writing 208 

Figures, different Kinds of 209 

Of Etymology and Syntax 209 

Of Rhetoric 210 

Poetic License 211 

PART IV — PROSODY. 

Prosody, Division of - 214 

Elocution. 214 

Versification 214 

Feet 215 

Poetic Pauses 221 

Composition 222 

The Use of Grammar in Composition 223 

The Law of Language 224 

Rules for 225 

Hints for correct and elegant Writing 226 

Themes for Composition 229 

Appendix . . . . — .-....: 1 ...... . 232 



GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is both a science and an art. 

2. As a science, it investigates the principles of lan- 
guage in general : as an art, it teaches the right method 
of applying these principles to a particular language, so as 
thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper 
manner, according to established usage. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English language with propriety. 

4. Language is either spoken or written. 

5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and articulate 
sounds. 

6. The elements of written language, are characters or letters 
which represent these sounds. 

7. Letters are formed into syllables and words ; words into sen- 
tences ; and by these, properly uttered or written, men communi- 
cate their thoughts to each other. 

8. Grammar is divided into four parts ; namely, Or- 
thography, Etymology, Syntax, a.nd Prosody. 

9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables ; Etymol- 
ogy, of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; and Prosody, of 
elocution and versification. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



PART I 



ORTHOGRAPHY.* 

10. Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

11. A letter is a mark or character used to represent an element- 
ary sound of the human voice. 

12. There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet. 

13. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

14. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound ; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The vow- 
els are a, e, ?', 0, w, and w and y, not beginning a word or syllable. 

15. A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound ; 
and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in 
connexion with a vowel. The consonants are, &, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 
I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y beginning a word or syllable. 

16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diph- 
thongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

17. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded, as ou in out ; oi in oil ; ow in cow. 

18. An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one in which only one 
of the vowels is sounded, as ou in court, oa in boat. 

19. A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, as 
eau in beauty. 

THE POWERS OF LETTERS. 

20. In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is neces- 
sary to distinguish between the name of a letter and its power. 

21. The name of a letter is that by which it is usually called; as 
A, be, se, de, &c. 

22. The power of a letter is the effect which it has, either by 
itself, or combined with other letters, in forming a word or syllable. 

* Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art of speak- 
ing and writing a language with propriety." Yet as the whole subject is treated 
more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis oi* its principles 
only is here given, rather as a matter oi form, than with a view to its being partic- 
•ularly studied at this stage. The teacher may therefore, if he thinks proper, pasg 
over this part for the present, and begin with Part IT. 



ORTHOGRAPHY LETTERS. 



11 



23. All the vowels have each several powers. Several letters 
have the same power, and certain powers or elements of words, are 
represented by a combination of two letters. 

24. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are 
about forty, and are divided into Vocals, represented by vowels and 
diphthongs, and Sabvocals, and Aspirates, represented by consonants, 
single or combined. 

25. Vocals are inarticulate sounds produced by the organs of 
voice, with the mouth more or less open, and with no change, or but 
slight change, of position in the organs of speech. 

26. Subvocals are sounds produced by the organs of voice, artic- 
ulated or modified by certain changes in the position of the organs of 
speech. 

27. Aspirates are mere whispering sounds without vocality, but 
which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of words. 
They are all articulate, except h. 

28. The elementary powers of letters can not be exhibited to the 
eye, but must be learned from the living voice. 

29. The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w 
and y), and if from the name of a consonant we take away the 
vowel sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant, 
except iv and y. 

30. Table of Elementary Sou?icls in the E?iglish 'Language. 



VOCALS. 


s 


UBVOCALS. 




ASPIRATES. 


A. 


ale, able. 


B. 


&at, orb. 


F. 


fix. 


A. 


art. 


D. 


do, did. 


H. 


*at 


A. 


all. 


G. 


gone, dog. 


K. 


keep, boo&. 


A. 
E. 


at. 
me. 


J. 
L. 


judge. 
Zie. 


P. 

S. 


^?en, to/?. 
,mn. 


E. 
I. 


met, egg. 
ire. 


M. 
N. 


m an. 
no. 


f. 

Th. 


fop, ba£. 
Both. 


I. 


in. 


XG. 


ring. 


Sh. 


show. 


0. 


old. 


R* 


rope, far. 


Ch. 


chide. 


0. 


move, ooze. 


Th. 


this. 


Wh. 


when. 


0. 


odd. 


V. 


ran. 






u. 


tune, use. 


W. 


we. 






u. 
u. 


up. 
Ml 


Y. 
Z. 


yes. 

zinc. 






Ou. 


thou. 


Z. 


azure. 







* R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound ; as, rat, rough : after a vowel a 
soft and liquid sound ; as, arm, far. 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



31. A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the forma- 
tion of words, is exhibited in the preceding table. In the words an- 
nexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in 
Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out all 
but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we have 
the power of that letter. 

32. Certain letters in the English Alphabet have the same power 
as others in the preceding table, and may therefore be called Equiv- 
alents. Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are numerous. 

33. Of the Subvocals and Aspirates eight pairs are Correlatives. 
In sounding the first of any of these pairs, the organs of voice* and 
speech are in the same position as in sounding its fellow, but the 
first, or subvocal, has vocality ; the second, or aspirate, has not. 

34. Table of Equivalents and Correlatives. 



EQUIVALENTS. 


CORRELATIVES. 


W = u cow, meiv. 


Sub 
V. 


jocals. 
vow. 


Aspirates. 
F. fame. 


Y = i tyrant, system. 
C hard = k cat. 


G. 
B. 


gone, 
bat. 


K. keep. 
P. pen. 


Q, = k liquor. 


Z. 


zinc. 


S. sin. 


C soft = s cent. 


D. 


do. 


T. top. 


Gr soft = j gin. 


Th. 


this. 


Th. thick. 


X = ks fix. 


Z. 


azure. 


Sh. show. 




J. 


judge. 


Ch. chide. 



35. These elementary sounds of the human voice, sometimes sim- 
ple, but more commonly combined, are formed into syllables and 
words. 



SYLLABLES. 



36. A Syllable is a certain vocal or articulate sound, 
uttered by one impulse of the voice, and represented by 
one or more letters, as, farm, farm-er, ea-gle, a-e-ri-al. 

37. Every word contains as many syllables as it has distinct vocal 
sounds, as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

* The Organs of voice, are those parts (called by physiologists the larynx and its 
appendages) which are employed in the production of simple vocal sounds. 

The Organs of speech are those parts employed to articulate or modify whisper- 
ing or vocal sounds, These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. 



ORTHOGRAPHY SYLLABLES. 13 

38. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

39. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable* 

40. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable, 

41. A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

42. The division of words into syllables is called Syl- 
labication. 

GENERAL RULE. 

43. Place together in distinct syllables, those letters which make 
up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as heard in its correct 
pronunciation. 

44. The only definite rules of much value on this subject, are the following- :— 

45. Rule 1. Two or more consonants forming but one elementary 
sound, are never separated; such as, ch, tch, th, sh, ng, ph, wh, gh 
silent, or sounding/, Ik sounding k, &c. ; as, church-es, ivatch-es, wor- 
thy, fish-es, sing-ing, philoso-phy, sigh-ing, cough-ing, walk-ing. 

46. Rule 2. The tenninations, cean, cian, ceous, cious, cial, tion, 
tious, tial, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided; as o-cean, 
gra-cious, na-tion, coura-geous, &c. 

47. Rule 3. Compound words are divided into their simple ones; 
as, rail-road, bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, &c. 

48. Rule 4. The terminations of words, when they form a sylla- 
ble, are usually separated from their roots; as, writ-er, teach-es, 
think-ing, cold-er, old-est. 

49. Two separate words combined as one name, are usually sepa- 
rated by a hyphen ; as rail-road, glass-house, bee-hive. 

50. In writing, a word of more than one syllable may be divided 
at the end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never. 



SPELLING. 

51. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters. 

, 52. The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, and in many 
cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by practice, and the use 
of the spelling-hook or dictionary. The following rules are of a general character, 
though even to these there may be a few exceptions : — 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 

RULE I. 

53. Monosyllables ending with /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. 

54. Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, us, thus, pus. 

RULE II. 

55. Words ending with any consonant except f, I, or s, do not 
double the final letter; as, sit, not, up, put, that, in. 

56. Exceptions, — Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err. inn, odd, purr. 

RULE III. 

57. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i 
before an additional letter or syllable ; as, spy, spies ; happy, hap- 
pier, happiest; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, fanciful. 

58. Exception 1. — But y is not changed before ing ; as, deny, denying. 

59. Exception 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y un- 
changed; as boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, 
said ; and day makes daily. 

RULE IV. 

60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that con- 
sonant before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as rob f 
robber ; admit, admittance, admitted. 

Exception. — But x and h are never doubled. 

61. But when a diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the ac- 
cent is not on the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled ; as, 
boil, boiling, boiler; wool, woolen ; fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 

62. Exceptions. In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel before it, and not 
accented on the last syllable, many writers, contrary to analogy and without neces- 
sity, double the I improperly before an additional syllable. These are such words 
as travel, traveller, travelling, travelled.* 

63. So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in bias, worship, 
and kidnap ; as Massing, worshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and many writers 
following Mm, in these words conform to the general rule. 

*The words referred to are the following: Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, 
cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, 
empanel, equal, gambol, gravel, grovel, handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, 
label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, pommel, 
quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, 
tunnel, unravel, 



ORTHOGRAPH Y SPELLING. IS 



RULE V*. 

64. Words ending with 11 drop one I before the terminations less 
and ly, to prevent trebling ; as, skill, skilless ; full, fully ; and some 
writers, before ness and ful ; as, fulness, skilful. 

65. But words ending in any other double letter, preserve the letter 
double before less, ly, ness, and ful ; as, harmlessly, stiffly, gruff- 
ness, &c. 

RULE VI. 

66. Silent e is preserved before the terminations, ment, less, ly, and 
ful ; as, paleness, peaceful, abatement, &c. 

67. Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, and generally judgment, acknowledgment, 
lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, from the Latin argumentum, 
is not an exception. 

RULE VII. 

68. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a vowel ; 
as, slave, slavish ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible ; lodge, lodging ; 
love, lovest. 

69. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, sometimes, though improp- 
erly, retain e before able ; as, blameable, &c. 

70. But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order to preserve the 
soft sound of g and c ; as, changeable, peaceable, &c. For the same reason we 
have singeing and swingeing : Dye has dyeing, to distinguish it from dying. So 
also words ending with c hard, insert k before a syllable beginning with e or i to 
preserve the hard sound ; as. frolic, frolicked, frolicking. 

71. The letters ie, at the end of a word, are changed into y before ing ; as, die, 
dying; lie, lying. 

RULE VIII. 

72. Simple words ending in 11, when joined to other words gener- 
ally drop one I, when they lose the accent ; as awful, hopeful, hand- 
ful, careful, already. 

73. But when they are under the accent, the double I should be 
retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. But, until, welcome, 
always, also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, have single I. 

74. On the subject of this rale, however, usage is far from uniform— fulfil and 
fulfill; willful and wilful; recal and recall ; foretel and foretell, and similar va- 
rieties are common. 

75. Other compounded words are generally spelled in the same manner as the 
simple words of which they are formed : as, glass-hoitse, mill-wright, thereby. 

76. Many words in English admit of two or more different modes of spelling; 
as, connection, connexion ; enquire, inquire ; chemistry, chymistry, &c. In such 
cases, prevailing usage and analogy must be our guides, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



CAPITALS. 



77. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both in writing and in 
printing; but at present only the following words begin with capital letters :- 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of interrogation, 
or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are 
independent of each other. 

But if several interrogative or exclamatory- sentences are so connected, that the 
latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with 
a small tetter; as, « How doth the city sit solitary, that was foil of people ! how are 
her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow !" 

3. Proper names, titles of office or honor; as, George Washing, 
ton, General Lee, Judge Story, Sir Walter Seott, America, the Ohio, 
Pratt, Woodford, S,- Co., Pearl Street, New York. 

4. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written in capitals. 

5. 1 he first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Most High, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

_ 7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, Gre- 
cian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation would 
form a complete sentence by itself; as, « Always remember this an- 
cient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma the 

s: tz^^ w[th a capM ; - " so1 — *™ *- < p^ot: 

9 Common nouns when personified ; as, " Come, gentle Spring." 

u'lfTI s ^f anrive and Principal word in the titles of books; 

Vilkge? S ° f Geometr y;" "Goldsmith's Deserted 

JHH^T WOr ^ be , side V he Preceding, may begin with capitals, when they are 
remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 



ETYMOLOGY WORDS. 17 



PART II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

79. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivations. 



WORDS. 



80. A Word is an articulate sound used by common 
consent as the sign of an idea. 

81. A few words consist of vocal or vowel sounds only, without 
articulation; as, I, ah, awe, oh, owe, eye, &cc. 

82.-1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are either 
Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 

83. A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other 
word in the language ; as, hoy, just, father. 

84. A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word ; 
as, boyish, justice, fatherly. 

85. A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, man, house, city. 

86. A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more sim- 
ple words ; as, manhood, horseman. 

87.-2. Words, in respect of Form, are either Declina- 
ble or Indeclinable. 

88. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, num- 
ber, case, person, &c, usually termed in Grammar Accidents ; as, 
man, men; love, loves, loved. 

89. In the changes which they undergo, Nouns and Pronouns are 
said to be declined, Verbs to be inflected. 

90. An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
form ; as, good, some, perhaps. 

2 # 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

91.-3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are 
divided into different classes, called Parts of Speech. 

92. The principle according to which words are classified is their use, or the 
part they perform in the expression of thought. Words which are names of objects 
are classed as nouns ; those which qualify nouns are adjectives ; those which at- 
tribute an action or state to some subject are verbs, &c. Hence, when the same 
word is used for different purposes — at one time as a name, at another to qualify 
a noun, and at another to express an action or state — it should, in parsing, be as- 
signed to that class of words, the office of which it performs for the time : thus? 
"Before honor [noun] is humility." " Honor [verb] thy father and thy mother." 

93. Parsing is the art of resolving a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech ; stating the accidents or gram- 
matical properties of each word, and pointing out its rela- 
tion to other words with which it is connected. 

94. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical. 

95. A word is parsed Etymologically by stating the class of words 
to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical properties. 

96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the 
relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according to 
which they are combined, in phrases and sentences. 

97. These two, though related, are perfectly distinct, and should not be mixed up 
in the early part of the student's course, by anticipating at the outset what he can 
be supposed to know, only at a more advanced stage. Such a course may seem to 
be more intellectual, but its tendency is only to perplex and darken the subject. 
Let the student leam one thing at a time, each thing thoroughly in its proper order, 
and continue to combine things learned as far as it can be done without anticipating 
what is future. In this way the process will be simple and easy; every step will 
be taken in the light, and when completed, the result will be satisfactory. Besides, 
the student must be able to parse etymologically with great ease and promptness, 
before he can with any advantage begin the study of syntax. This promptness he 
will acquire in a very short time, and almost without effort, if the class is properly 
drilled on the exercises furnished at every step in the following pages. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

98. The Parts of Speech in English are nine : viz., 
Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Prepo- 
sition, Interjection, and Conjunction. 

99. Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb> are de- 
clined ; the rest are indeclinable. 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 19 



NOUNS. 

100. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, John, London, booh. Hence, 

The names of persons, places, or things, are Nouns. 

101. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indi- 
vidual only ; as, John, London, America, the Ohio. 

103. A Common Noun is a name applied to all things 
of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, book. 

104. Remark. — Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals of the same 
class from each other. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classes, and are equally 
applicable to all things of the same class.. Thus, the common noun boy is equally 
applicable to all objects of that class ; but the proper nouns John, James, Robert, 
&c., are applicable only to particular individuals of a class. 

OBSERVATIONS ON NOUNS. 

105. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole class, it be- 
comes common, and generally has an article before it; as, " The 
twelve Ctesars," "He is the Cicero of his age," " A Daniel come to 
judgment/' 

106. Common nouns become proper when personified, and also 
when used as proper names ; as, Hail, Liberty ! The Park. 

107. Under common nouns are usually ranked — 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in 

in the singular number ; as, army, people. 

2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety, wickedness. 

3. Verbal nouns, or the names of actions, &c. ; as, reading, writ- 

ing, sleeping. 

4. Diminutive nouns, or nouns derived from other nouns, and de- 

noting a small one of the kind ; as, stream, streamlet ; leaf, 
leaflet ; hill, hillock, &c. 

108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, letter, mark, or 
character, of which we can think, speak, or write, regarded merely as an object of 
thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do not give it a name. Thus 
when we say, " Good" is an adjective, a is a vowel, b is a consonant, A is a capi- 
tal, 4 is an even number, \ is a fraction, ? is a mark of interrogation, -f- is the sign 
of addition, — of subtraction, = of equality — Good, a, b, A, 4, £, ?, -)-, — , ==, are 
all to be regarded as nouns. 

109. Remark. — A noun is also called a substantive. But this term for conve- 
nience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to mean nouns, personal pro- 



£0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nouns, or phrases used as nouns, and usually called "substantive phrases." Thus 
in such a rule as this, " An adjective agrees with a substantive," &c, the word sub- 
stantive may mean either a noun, or pronoun, or substantive phrase. 

EXERCISES.* 

1. In the following list distinguish proper nouns from common, and give a reason 
for the distinction : — 

Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house, 

garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio, 

Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun, 

moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, woman, boy, 

girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, valley, 

wood, lake, road, time, soldier, army, regiment, Caesar, Pora- 

pey, tide, people, honor, virtue, kindness, grammar, logic, &c. 

2. In the following sentences point out the nouns. Say why they are nouns ; tell 
whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus : " Table" a noun, because 
the name of a thing ; common, because applied to all things of the same sort. 

The table and chairs in this room belong to John ; the 
book-case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. Time 
and tide wait for no man. The largest city in Europe is 
London ; in America, New York. The northern states pro- 
duce wheat, oats, barley, iye, corn, and potatoes ; while cot- 
ton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, are the products of the south. 

3. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and say something re- 
specting each, so as to make a sentence. 

Thus : Summer — summer is the warmest season of the year. 

Virtue — virtue is its own reward 

4. Tell what words in the sentences so made are nouns, and why ; which are 
proper, or common, and why. 

5. Write down ten more — and ten more ; and proceed as above. 



ACCIDENTS OF THE JNTOUN. 
110. To nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and 
Case. 

* The exercises furnished here, and throughout this work, are intended merely 
as a specimen of the way in which the leading truths and facts in Grammar may 
be wrought into the minds of pupils, by means of exercises properly devised. It is 
not, however, expected or desired that the teacher should limit himself to these. 
Every active and ingenious teacher will devise such new and various methods of 
exercising his pupils as their age, capacity, and circumstances, and his own judg- 
ment and experience, may suggest, as best calculated to draw out their powers, 
and cultivate in them a habit of thinking and reasoning for themselves. 



ETYMOLOGY PERSON. 21 

Note. — These properties belong also to personal and relative 
pronouns (235). 

PERSON. 

111. Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of nouns 
as used in discourse to denote the speaker, the person or 
thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. Hence, 

112. There are three persons, called First, Second, and Third. 

113. A noun is in the fi rst person when it denotes the speaker; 
as, U I, Paul, have written it." 

114. A noun is in the second person when it denotes the person or 
thing addressed ; as, "Thou, God, seest me." — "Hail, Liberty!" 

115. A noun is in the third person when it denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, "Washington was brave." — u Truth is mighty." 

116. Remark. — The third person is used sometimes for the first ; as, " Thy serv- 
ant became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 32. Sometimes, particu- 
larly in the language of supplication, for the second ; as, " O let not the Lord be 
angry." Gen. xviii. 30. "■ Will the Lord bless us!" 

OBSERVATIONS ON PERSON. 

117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns de- 
noting persons, or to things personified ; because persons only can 
speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong to all nouns, 
because every object, whether person or thing, may be spoken of. 

118. A noun can be the subject of a verb only in the third person. 
A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject of 
a verb, but only in apposition with the first or second personal pro- 
noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis ; and sometimes in the 
second person, without a pronoun, as the object addressed. 

119. A noun in the predicate is generally, though not always, in 
the third person, even when the subject is in the first or second ; as, 
" I am Alpha," &c, " who is." So with the pronouns 2" and thou ; as, 
M I am he," " Thou art the man." 

120. Remark. — Person makes no change either in the meaning or form of a 
noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used, as above stated. More- 
over, as the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, is seldom expressed 
(the pronouns / and thou, we and you, being used in their stead), it seems to be a 
useless waste of time, in parsing, to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in 
the first or second person, which will not happen more than once in a thousand 
times. Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sustained, if it be considered 
as taken for granted, without stating it, that a noun is in the third person, unless it 
be otherwise mentioned. 



22 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GENDER. 

121. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 

sex. 

122. There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

123. Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; as, man, 
boy. 

124. Nouns denoting females are Feminine ; as, woman, 
girl. 

125. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e., 
things without sex, are Neuter ; as, house, book, tree. 

126. Nouns which denote either males or females, such as parent, 
neighbor, friend, &c, are sometimes, for the sake of convenience, 
said to be of the Common Gender, i. e., either masculine or feminine 

127. There are three ways of distinguishing the sex. 

1. By different words ; as, 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boy 


girl 


King 


queen 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


Hart 


roe 


Wizard 


witch 


2. 


By a difference of termination ; as, 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Actor 


actress 


Author 


authoress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Baron 


baroness 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS GENDER. 



Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Masculine 


Feminine* 


Count 


countess 


Peer 


peeress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Poet 


poetess 


Duke 


duchess 


Priest 


priestess 


Elector 


electress 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 
Enchanter 


empress 
enchantress 


Prior 
Prophet 


prioress 
prophetess 


Executor 
Governor 


executrix 
governess 


Protector 
Shepherd 


protectress 
shepherdess 


Heir 


heiress 


Songster 


songstress 


Hero 


heroine 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Hunter 
Host 


huntress 
hostess 


Sultan 


i sultana, or s 
( taness 


Jew- 
Landgrave 


Jewess 
landgravine 


Tiger 
Traitor 


tigress 
traitress 


Lion 


lioness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Mayor 
Patron 


mayoress 
patroness 


Votary 
Widower 


votaress 
widow 


3. 


By prefixing a 


distinguish] 


ing word ; as, 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Sparrow. 
Goat. 


A cock sparrow. 
A he goat. 


A hen sparrow 
A she goat. 


Servant. 


A man servant. 


A maid servant. 


Child. 


A male child. 


A female child. 


Descendants. Male descendants. 


Female descendants, 



sul- 



OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

128. Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine ; as, 
baker, brewer, &c. : and some feminine nouns have no corresponding 
masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress, &c. 

129. Some nouns naturally neuter, are often, by a figure of speech, 
converted into the masculine or feminine ; as, when we say of the 
sun, " He is setting;" of the moon, " She is eclipsed ;" or of a ship, 
" She sails." 

130. Remark. — This inferior species of personification, peculiar to the English 
language, is often used with great beauty to impart animation and liveliness to the 
style, without rendering it inflated or passionate. No certain rule, however, can be 
given as to the gender to be used, except that nouns denoting objects distinguished 
for strength or boldness usually become masculine, while, on the other hand, those 
denoting objects noted for softness, beauty, and gracefulness, are considered 
feminine. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

131. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or not regarded, we 
assign the masculine gender to those distinguished for boldness, fidelity, generosity 
size, strength, &c, as the dog, the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, " The dog is 
remarkably various in his species." On the other hand, we assign the feminine 
gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity ; as, the hare, the cat, 
&c, thus, " The cat, as she beholds the light, draws the ball of her eye small and 
long." 

132. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, -we frequently 
consider them devoid of sex, or of the neuter gender. Thus, of an infant, we say, 
" It is a lovely creature ;" of a cat, " It is cruel to its enemy." 

133. When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms; as, shepherd, 
shepherdess, the masculine term has sometimes also a general meaning, expressing 
both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profes- 
sion, &c, and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The femi- 
nine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is necessary. Thus, when 
it is said, " the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste," the 
term " Poet" clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry. But, " the 
best Poetess of the age," would be used when speaking only of females. 

134. Collective nouns, when the reference is to the aggregate as 
one whole, or when they are in the plural number, are considered as 
neuter; as, "The army destroyed everything in its course ;" but 
when the reference is to the objects composing the collection as indi- 
viduals, they take the gender of the individuals referred to. 

EXERCISES. 

t. What is the feminine of — Father, prince, king, master, 
actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, 
priest, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, 
lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, &c. ? 

2. What is the masculine of — Lady, woman, girl, niece, 
nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, 
sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparrow, shepherdess, 
daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, &c. % 

3. Tell of what gender the following nouns are, and why. 

Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, count, 
lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, goose, 
seamstress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, 
limb, lion, tiger, mayor, countess ; — friend, neighbor, parent, 
teacher, assistant, guide ; — sun (129), moon, earth, ship ; — cat 
(132), mouse, fly, bird, elephant, hare. 

4. Take any of the above words, and say something respecting the person or 
thing which it denotes, so as to make a sentence ; thus, " My father is at home." 



ETYMOLOGY—NOUNS— NUMBER. 



NUMBER. 

135. Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. 

136. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. The singular denotes one; as, book, tree: the 
plural, more titan one; as, hooks, trees. 

GENERAL RULE. 

137. The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the 
singular ; as, book, books. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

138. Rule 1.— Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form 
the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses; brush, brushes ; 
match, matches; topaz, topazes ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

139. Exceptions. — Nouns in eo, io, and yo, have s only ; as, cameo, 
cameos ; folio, folios ; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, cantos. 
Junto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo, halo, quarto, formerly had s only 
in the plural ; but now more commonly es under the Rule ; as, junto, 
juntoes, &c. Nouns in ch sounding k, add s only ; as, monarch, 
monarchs. 

140. Whenever s or es will not coalesce with the final syllable, it 
adds a syllable to the word ; as, age, pi. ages ; box, boxes. But 
where s or es will coalesce, it does not add a syllable ; as, book, 
books ; cargo, cargoes. The s will make an additional syllable only 
after e final, preceded by g, or an s-sound : as, cage, cages ; race, 
races ; rose, roses. Es will coalesce, and so not add a syllable, only 
after o ; as, echo, echoes. 

141. Rule 2. — Nouns in y after a consonant, change y 
into ies in the plural ; as, lady, ladies. But * 

Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y, fol- 
low the general rule (137) ; as, day, days ; the Pompeys, 
the Tullys, &c. 

142. Rule 3. — Nouns mfoxfe, change/ or fe into ves 
in the plural ; as loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

143. Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief; ker- 
chief, handkerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; 
proof, hoof, reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in Jf* have 
their plural in s ; as, muff, muffs ; except staff, plural staves ; but its 
compounds are regular ; as, flagstaff, flagstaff ; wharf has either 
wharfs or wharves. 

EXERCISES. 

1 . Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it thus, Fox, 
plural, foxes. Rule — Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural by- 
adding- es. 

Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, 
coach, inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, 
wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, 
potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, 
flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy; 
army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, 
grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, 
staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 

2. Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, house, 
prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, 
hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach ] 

3. Take six of the above words, and say something respecting each ; first in the 
singular, aud then in the plural. 

NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

144. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural ; 
such as — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men 

Woman women 

Child children 

Foot feet 

Ox oxen 

but now regular, cows 

145. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular form of the 
plural, but with different significations ; as — 



Tooth 




teeth 


Goose 




geese 


Mouse 




mice 


Louse 




lice 


Cow, 


formerly 


kine 





ETYMOLOGY NOUNS NUMBER. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Brother 


(one of the same family) 


brothers 


Brother 


(one of the same society) 


brethren 


Die 


(a stamp for coining) 


dies 


Die 


(a small cube for gaming) 


dice 


Genius 


(men of genius) 


geniuses 


Genius 


(a kind of spirit) 


genii 


Index 


(a table of reference) 


indexes 


Index 


(a sign in algebra) 


indices 


Pea 


(as a distinct seed) 


peas 


Pea 


(as a species of grain) 


pease 


Sow- 


(an individual animal) 


sows 


Sow or swine (the species) 


swine 


Penny 




pennies 


^ct CU1II 1 


Penny 


(a sum or value) 


pence 



27 



146. Note. — Though pence is plural, yet such expressions as 
four pence, sixpence, &c, as the name of a sum, or of a coin repre- 
senting that sum, is often regarded as singular, and so capable of a 
plural ; as, " Three fourpences, or two sixpences, make a shilling." — 
44 A new sixpence is heavier than an old one." 

147. Compounds ending inful or full, and generally those which 
have the important word last, form the plural regularly ; as spoon- 
ful, cup-full, coach-full, handful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, 
earner a-obscur a, &c. ; plural, spoonfuls, cup-fulls, coach-fulls, &c. 

148. Compounds in w r hich the principal word stands first, pluralize 
the first word ; as — 

Singular. Plural. 

Commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp 

Knight-errant knights -errant 

Court-martial courts-martial 

Cousin-german cousins-german 

Father-in-law, &c. fathers-in-law, &c. 

Man-servant changes both ; as, men-servants. So also, women- 
servants, knights-templars. 

149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple w T ord ; 
as, fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, 
and not compounds of man, form the plural by the general rule ; as, 
Turcoman, Mussulman, talisman ; plural, Turcomans, Mussul- 
mans, Sec. 

150. Proper names, when pluralized, and other parts of speech 



28 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



used as nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar 
endings ; as, the Aristotles, the Solons, the Mariuses, the Pompeys, 
the Cicero s ; the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs ; by sixes and 
sevens, by fifties ; three fourths, two halves ; " His ands and his ors ;" 
" One of the buts is superfluous." 

151. Exception. — Such words ending in y after a consonant, fol- 
low the general rule (137), and not the special rule (141) ; as, the 
Livys, the Tullys, the Henrys — " The whys and the bys." 

152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by 
adding 's ; as, "Dot your i% and cross your Vs." — "Your s's are 
not well made." — u The +'s and — 's are not in line." — "Four 6's 
=eight 3'5." — "9's give place to O's." 

153. Note. — Some good writers form the plural of proper names, &c, in this 
way ; as, the Marivs's, the Pompey's — the why's and the wherej bre's. But this 
is unnecessary, and should be avoided. 

154. Words adopted without change from foreign languages gen- 
erally retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um 
or on, have a in the plural. Latin nouns in is, in the plural change 
is into es ; Greek nouns in is, change is into ides : Latin nouns in a, 
change a into ce ; but Greek nouns change a into ata in the plural. 
The following are the most common, some of which, however, from 
common use, have become so much a part of the language as to have 
also the regular English form of the plural. In the following table 
these are indicated by the letter R. 



Singular. 

Alumnus 

Alumna 

Amanuensis 

Anatysis 

Animalculum 

Antithesis 

Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 

Automaton 

Axis 

Bandit 

Basis 

Beau 

Calx 

Cherub 



Plural. 

alumni 

alumnae 

amanuenses 

analyses 

animalcula, R. 

antitheses 

apices, R. 

appendices, R. 

arcana 

automata, R. 

axes 

banditti 

bases 

beaux, R. 

calces, R. 

cherubim 



Singular. 

Chrysalis 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Diaeresis 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Ephemeris 

Erratum 

Focus 

Formula 

Fungus 

Genius 



Plural. 

chrysalides 

crises 

criteria 

data 

desiderata 

diaereses 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 

encomia, R. 

ephemerides 

errata 

foci 

formulae, R. 

fungi, funguses 

genii (145) 



ETYMOLOGY NOUMS N UMBER. 



29 



Singular, 

Genus 

Gymnasium 

Hypothesis 

Ignis fat u us 

Index (a pointer) 

Index (in algebra) 

Lamina 

Larva 

Magus 

Medium 

Memorandum 

Metamorphosis 

Miasma 

Momentum 

Monsieur 

Mr. (master) 



Plural. 

genera 

gvmnasia, R. 

hypotheses 

ignes fatui 

indexes 

indices 

laminae 

larvae 

magi 

media, R. 

memoranda, R. 

metamorphoses 

miasmata 

momenta, R. 

messieurs 

messrs. (masters 



Singular. 
Nebula 
Oasis 

Parenthesis 
Phenomenon 
Radius 
Scholium 
Seraph 
Speculum 
Stamen 
Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertebra 
Vertex 
Virtuoso 
) Vortex 



Plural. 

nebulae 

oases 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii 

scholia, R. 

seraphim, R, 

specula 

stamina, R. 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertebrae 

vertices, R. 

virtuosi 

vortices, R. 



EXERCISES ON NOUNS IRREGULAR IN NUMBER. 

Give the 'plural of — Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, child, 
woman, brother, goose, tooth ; — sow, die, court-martial, father- 
in-law, son-in-law; cup-full, coach-full, spoonful; — erratum, 
medium, radius, genius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, 
stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph, &c. 

Of what number is — Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, dor- 
mice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, child, 
court-martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, geniuses, indices, 
indexes, mathematics, Matthew, James, John ? 

OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 

155. Some nouns are used in the singular only. Such are the 
names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, and 
things weighed or measured ; as, gold, meekness, piety, idleness, 
intemperance, sculpture, geometry, wisdom, flour, milk, &c. Except 
when different sorts of things are expressed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, 
liquors, &c. 

156. Some nouns are used in the plural only ; as, annals, antipo- 
des, 'archives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothes, calends, 
colors (military banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestines, 
literati, lees, letters (literature), minutice, manners, morals, nones, 

3* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

orgies, pleiads or pleiades, shambles, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, 
victuals. And things consisting of two parts ; as, bellows, drawers, 
hose, nippers, pincers, pliers, snuffers, scissors, shears, tongs, &c. 

A few words usually plural, viz., bowels, embers, entrails, lungs, 
have sometimes a singular, denoting a part or portion of that expressed 
by the plural ; as, bowel, lung, &c. 

157. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, 
vermin, salmon, tench ; apparatus, hiatus, series, congeries, species, 
superficies ; head (in the sense of individual), cattle ; also fish, and 
sometimes fowl, denoting the class ; but, denoting individuals, they 
have the regular plural; as, fishes, fowls. 

158. The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hun- 
dred, thousand, and some others, after adjectives of number, are 
either singular or plural ; as, a brace, a dozen, a hundred ; two brace, 
three dozen, six hundred, &c. But without an adjective of number, 
or in other constructions, and particularly after in, by, &c, in a dis- 
tributive sense, most of these words, in the plural, assume a plural 
form; as, " In braces and dozens.'''' — "By scores and hundreds/'' — 
" Worth thousands. 11 

159.-1. The following words, plural in form, are sometimes singu- 
lar, but most commonly plural in signification, viz. : amends, means, 
riches, pains (meaning laborious effort), odds, alms, wages ; and the 
names of certain sciences; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, acoustics, 
metaphysics, politics, pneumatics, hydrostatics, Sec. 

2. Means and amends, referring to one object, are singular; to 
more than one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to 
signify the middle between two extremes. Alms (celmesse, Anglo- 
Saxon) and riches (richesse, French) are really singular, though 
now used commonly in a plural sense. News, formerly singular or 
plural, is now mostly singular. Molasses and measles, though ending 
like a plural, are singular, and are so used. Oats is generally plural ; 
gallows is both singular and plural, though a distinct plural form, 
gallowses, is also in use. 

160. The following are singular in form, but in construction vari- 
ous ; thus, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, mean- 
ing persons, are always construed as plural ; cannon, shot, sail, 
cavalry, infantry, as singular Or plural. People, when it signifies a 
community or body of persons, is a collective noun in the singular, 
and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural form ; as, "Many peoples 
and nations." Rev. x. 11. 



E T YMOLOGY NOUNS CASE. 31 



THE PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES. 

161. Proper names for the most part want the plural ; but — 

1. Proper names without a title are used in the plural, when they 
refer to a race or family; as, " The Campbells" " the Stuarts ;" or 
to several persons of the same name ; as, " The twelve Ccesars ;" 
or when they are used to denote character; as, " The Ciceros of the 
age." 

2. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, or with any title, 
preceded by the numerals, two, three, &c, pluralize the name, and 
not the title ; as, " The Mrs. Howards ;" " the two Miss Mortons ;" 
" the two Mr. Henrys.'' 1 

3. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of indi- 
vidually, and distinguished by a particular appellation, or when per- 
sons of different names are spoken of together, the title only, and not 
the name, is made plural; as, " Misses Julia and Mary Robinson;" 
"Messrs. George and Andrew Thomson;" " Messrs. Pratt, Wood- 
ford, & Co." 

Thus far, usage and the rule are settled and uniform ; but — 

4. In other cases, usage is still unsettled. Some writers, perhaps 
the majority, pluralize the title and not the name ; as, " The Misses 
Brown," " the Messrs. Harper." Others, of equal authority, regard- 
ing the title as a sort of adjective, or the whole as a compound name, 
pluralize the name, and not the title ; as. " The Miss Browns ;" u the 
Mr. Harpers." This form is more common in conversation, and, 
being less stiff and formal, is more likely to prevail. A few improp- 
erly pluralize both name and title ; as, " The Misses Browns ;" " the 
Messrs. Harpers." 

5. Names, with other titles prefixed, follow the same analogy ; as, 
" Lords Wellington and Lynedoch ;" " the lords bishops of Durham 
and St. David's ;" " the generals Scott and Taylor." 



CASES OF NOUNS. 

162. Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. 

163. Nouns in English have three cases, the Nomina- 
tive, Possessive, and Objective. 



32 ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 

164. The Nominative case is used— 

1. When a noun is used simply as the name of an object. 

2. When it is used as that of which something is affirmed ; as, 

" John reads." 

3. When it is used as a predicate ; as, " John is a good boy" 

4. When it is used absolutely, or independent of any other word ; 

as, " O Absalom, my son !" 

165. The Possessive case connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of origin, possession, or fitness ; as, The sun's rays; John's 
book; a boy's cap ; mew's. shoes. 

166. The Objective case is used — 

1. To denote the object of a transitive verb in the active voice; 

as, "James assists Thomas." 

2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a preposition ; 

as, " They live in London" 

3. To denote time, weight, measure, &c, without a governing 

word ; as, u James is ten years old." 

GENERAL RULES. 

167. The nominative and the objective of nouns are 
alike. 

168. The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

169. 'When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed 
by adding an apostrophe only ; as, ladies'. But when the 
plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe and s are 
added ; as, men's, children's. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

170. Nouns are thus declined — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. 

Nom. Lady ladies Man men John 

Poss. Lady's ladies' Man's men's John's 

Obj. Lady ladies Man men John 

171. Proper names for the most part want the plural (161). 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE. 

172. The 's in the possessive case is evidently an abbreviation for the old Eng- 
lish termination of the genitive in es or is. Thus, " The king's crown" was writ- 
ten, " The kingis crown/' That 's is not an abbreviation for his, as some have 



ETYMOLOGY NOUNS POSSESSIVE. 33 

supposed, is manifest from the fact., that it is used where his could not be properly 
employed: thus, woman's, men's, children's, book's, &c, can not be resolved into 
woman his, men his, children his, &c. 

The apostrophe (') after s in the plural, is not a mark of abbreviation, but is 
used, in modern times, merely as a sign of the possessive. Its use in the plural is 
but of recent date. 

173. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of a 
similar sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in 
order to avoid harshness, or too close a succession of hissing sounds ; 
as, " For goodness' sake;" "for conscience' sake;" "Davies' Sur- 
veying ;*' "Moses' disciples;" "Jesus' feet." 

174. Note. — There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on this point. 
Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in every position ; as, " Xan- 
thus's stock of patience." — L'Etrange. Others drop the s only before a word 
beginning with an s or an s-sound, as above ; while others drop the s wherever the 
use of it would produce harshness, or difficulty of pronunciation. Though in this 
last, the usage which omits the s is less prevalent and less accurate than that which 
retains it, yet, from the sanction it has obtained — from the stiffness and harshness 
which retaining die s often occasions — and from the tendency in all spoken lan- 
guage to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against all argu- 
ments to the contrary. 

175. Remark. — In written language, the omission of the s occasions no inconve- 
nience ; for the apostrophe sufficiently indicates the case, and the construction will 
generally indicate the number. In spoken language, however, the use of the s is 
more necessary to avoid obscurity, especially in proper names. Thus, in spoken 
language, "Davy's Surveying," and "Davies' Surveying*," sound precisely alike, 
though the names are different. Hence, to indicate the last name correctly in 
speaking, it will be more accurate, though less euphonic, to say, " Davies' s Survey- 
ing." Thus, also. "Perkins' Arithmetic/' "Bullions' Grammar," "Sparks' Analy- 
sis," in spoken language, may be mistaken for " Perkin's •Arithmetic," " Bunion's 
Grammar/' " Spark's Analysis." In such cases, precision will be secured at the 
expense of euphony, by retaining the s, while euphony will be attained, frequently 
at the expense of precision, by dropping it. 

176. The meaning of the possessive may in general be expressed by the word 
of with the objective ; thus, for " man's wisdom," " virtue's reward," we may say, 
" the wisdom of man" " the reward of virtue"* This mode will generally be pre- 
ferred, when the use of the possessive would appear stiff or awkward ; thus, " the 
length of the day," is better than " the day's length." In some few words w T hich 
want the possessive plural, such as father-in-law, court-martial, &c, this is the 
only substitute. These two modes of expression, however, are not always equiv- 
alent; thus, "the king's picture," means any picture belonging to the king; "a 
picture of the king." means a portrait of him, without saying to whom it belongs. 
So also, of with the objective, can not always be represented by the possessive ; as, 
" A piece of gold," "a cord of wood," "the house of representatives" &c. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PARSING THE NOUN. 

177. A noun is parsed etymologically, by stating its 
accidents, or grammatical properties (110), as exemplified 
(182). 

178. Note. — The possessive is easily known by its form. As the nominative 
and objective of nouns are alike, in parsing nouns in the following lists, all nouns 
not in the possessive may be said to be in the nominative. The method of distin- 
guishing the nominative and objective will be explained in its proper place. As 
person belongs, not to the form, but to the relations of the noun, the mention of it 
may be omitted for the present. 

179. N B. — In all parsing much time will be saved, if the pupil be accustomed 
to say everything necessary to be said, at once, without waiting to have each par- 
ticular drawn from him by a question — to say it in the shortest possible manner — 
and also to say the same things always in the same order. Every teacher will of 
course select that order which he prefers. The order here directed may perhaps 
be acceptable to most teachers (182). 

180. As it makes no difference in the construction of a sentence, whether a noun 
be proper or common, there seems to be little or no advantage in mentioning this 
distinction in parsing. Some accordingly omit this, as well as person in parsing, 
for the sake of brevity — an object worthy of consideration in a large school, where 
economy of time is important. Or, when a proper noun occurs, which is compara- 
tively seldom, it may be mentioned, taking it always for granted that a noun is 
common when not otherwise mentioned. This appears to be sufficient for every 
purpose. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

181. In proceeding to parse the noun, the teacher, if he thinks proper, may begin 
by some such inductive process as the following : The class having gone through 
the preceding definitions and rules, the teacher may call on some one to mention 
the name of anything he sees, or happens to think of; and suppose he mentions the 
words house, tree, book, desk, pen, &c, let these words be written on the black- 
board. He may then call on another, and another, in the same way, still writing 
the names as mentioned. In this way the pupils will furnish a list of exercises for 
themselves. The teacher may then take the first of these, "house," and write it 
by itself on the board, at the left hand, and proceed with some such questions as the 
following, the answers to which, from what has been previously learned, will 
be obvious, and readily given : — 

Is House the name of any thing? 

What part of speech are the names of things ? 

Then, what part of speech is House 1 Ans. " A noun. 11 

(After the word house on the board now write the -word " noun".) 
What is a noun ? — How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a proper noun ? — what a common noun ? 
Is the word house proper or common ? Ans. Common. 

(Then after the word "noun" write the word common, as before.) 
What are the properties or accidents of the noun ? 
What is gender ? — How many genders are there ? 



ET YMOUOG Y NOUNS. 35 

What nouns are masculine ? — what feminine ? — what neuter ? 

To which of these does the word house belong? Ans. Neuter, Why? 

(Then write the word neuter after common, as above.) 
What is the next property of the noun ? 
What is number? — How many numbers are there ? 
W hat does the singular denote ? — the plural ? 
Does House denote one or more than one ? 
Of what number then is House ? Ans. Singular, 

(Now add as above the word singular,) 
What is the next property of a noun ? 
How many cases are there ? Name them. 
Decline House in the singular: — in the plural 

Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentioned simply as the name of 
an object ? 

House being- used in this manner here, in what case is it 1 Ans. In the Nomi- 
native. 

(Then write nominative at the end, as above.) 

At this point, there will have been written on the blackboard the following: — 
House, Noun, Common, Neuter, Singular, Nominative, 
The teacher may then ask, as a sort of review, Why do you call house, a noun ? 
— why, common ? — why, neuter ? — why, singular ? — why, the nominative ? — 
requiring a distinct answer to each question, And lastly, he may require the 
pupil to state these reasons in order, without the questions ; thus : — 

House — a Noun, because the name of a thing ; 

Common, because it belongs to all things of the sort ; 
Neuter, because without sex ; 
Singular, because it denotes one, plural, houses ; 
Nominative, because it is used only as a name (164-lst). 
By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs to the parsing 
of a noun will become so familiar, and so clearly understood, as to be always easy- 

182. In parsing, these accidents may be stated either in the order 
above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, " A common neu- 
ter noun, in the nominative singular" Others prefer, as giving 
more prominence to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonious, to 
say, "A noun, common, neuter, in the nominative singular.''' 1 Or, 
omitting the kind of noun, except when a proper noun occurs, for 
reasons stated (180), to say more briefly, "A noun, neuter, in the 
nominative singular." This last method is the one here recom- 
mended, as being brief and sufficiently descriptive. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the gender, case, and number of the following nouns, and always in the 
same order; thus, "Father, a noun, masculine, in the nominative, singular" 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, 
hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, 
grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, Robert's shoe, 
horse, bridle. 

2. Go over the same list, giving a reason for everything stated ; thus, " Father, a 
noun, because the name of an object; masculine, because it denotes a male ; nom- 
inative, because mentioned simply as the name of an object (164-lst) ; singular, 
because it denotes one." 



THE ARTICLE. 

183. An Article is a word put before a noun, to indi- 
cate the manner in which it is used. 

184. There are two articles, a or cm and the. 

185. A or an is called the indefinite article, because it shows that 
its noun denotes a person or thing indefinitely, or without distinction ; 
as, A man, i. e., any man, or some man, without stating which one. 

186. A is used before a consonant ; as, a book : also before a vowel, 
or diphthong, which combines with its sound the power of initial y, 
or w ; as, a unit, a use, a eulogy, a ewe, many a one. 

187. An is used before a vowel or silent h ; as, an age, an hour: 
also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on 

the second syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical account ; 

because h in such words is but slightly sounded. 

188. Note.— The primary form of this article is An fane). The n has been 
dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony. 

189. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of one, each, every ; 
as, "Six cents a pound;" "two shillings a yard;" "one dollar a 
day;" "four hundred a year." 

^ 190. Remark.— Iu the expressions a hunting, a fishing, a building, and the 
like, a is equivalent to at, to, in, on, and is to be regarded, not as an article, but as 
a preposition or prefix (548). In the same sense, it is used as a prefix in such 
words as ajioat, ashore, asleep, abed, &c. 

191. The is called the definite article, because it shows that its 
noun is used definitely, and refers to some particular person or thing; 
as, the man, i. e., some particular man ascertained or pointed out! 
See Syntax (707-2). 

m 192. NoTE.-The article is sometimes said to limit the signification of a noun, 
and is therefore called a « definitive." This is scarcely correct. A noun with a or 
an prefixed, is always used in an individual sense, to denote one of a class. But 
this being for the most part sufficiently indicated by the singular number, the use of 



ETYMOLOGY ARTICLE. 37 

the article to mark the individual is necessary only in the few cases in which the 
noun, in the singular number, is used in a generic, as well as individual sense. Thus 
the terms man, woman, oak, &c, without an article, mean the species; but with 
a or an prefixed, they mean the individual ; as, a man, a woman, an oak. So far 
only can a or an properly be said to limit, or perform the part of a definitive. In 
other respects, it rather shows the want of limitation. 

193. In like maimer, the article the commonly indicates that its noun is limited, 
and refers to some particular person or thing, but still the article is not the limiting 
word. A noun may be limited in a variety of ways, by notoriety or eminence, by 
previous mention, by an adjective, a possessive, a relative clause, a preposition and 
its case, &c. ; but never by the article, except perhaps in the case of previous men- 
tion, and even that is doubtful. Thus when we say. " The red book," "the boy's 
book/' "the book which ice lost," "the book on the table," we perceive that the 
word book, following the, is limited — not, however, by the article, but by the words 
red, boy's, &c. This fact constitutes a specific difference between the article and 
the adjective : the adjective always describes or limits its noun ; the article does not, 
but is only a sort of index, to give previous notice that the noun is used in a particu- 
lar way. 

194. Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating wheth- 
er it is definite or indefinite, and to what noun it belongs ; 
thus, " A book."— A is the indefinite article, and belongs 
to book. 

EXERCISES. 

Is it proper to say — a man, or an man ] why 1 

a apple, or an apple 1 why % 

a house, or an house ? why ? 

a hour, or an hour] why] 

a unicorn, or an unicorn ] why ] 

a ewe, or an ewe 1 why 1 

1. Prefix the indefinite article a or an correctly to the following words. 

2. Tell which words are nouns, and why — parse them (177) — decline them. 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, 
egg, ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, word, 
hook, pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, uncle, 
aunt ; — open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, old hat, 
new coat, ice-house, &c. 

3. In the following, correct such as are wrong, and give a reason for the change ; 
: — parse the articles and nouns. 

An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, 
an wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a ostrich, 
a pen — a ugly beast, a useful tree, an humming-bird, an neat 
4 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cottage, a upper room, an huge monster, a handsome woman, 
a delightful prospect. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify a sub- 
stantive ; as, " A good boy ;" " a square box ;" " ten dol- 
lars ;" " we found him poor." 

196. A noun is qualified by an adjective, when the object named is thereby 
described, limited, or distinguished from other things of the same name. This is 
done two ways : — 

1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by which the objects 
named are described or distinguished from others of the same kind ; as, " A red 
flag;" " an amusing story." Such are common and participial adjectives (202). 

2. Others merely limit, without expressing any quality ; as, " An American 
book;" '-ten dollars;" "last week;" "this year;" "every day." &c. Such are 
circumstantial, numeral, and definitive adjectives (202). 

197. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive mood, or 
clause of a sentence used as a substantive ; as, " To play is pleas- 
ant." — u That the rich are happy is not always true" 

198. Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same noun; as, "A 
smooth, round stone." 

199. An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of 
another adjective, both forming a sort of compound adjective; as, "A 
bright-red color;" " a dark-blue coat;" "a cast-iron ball." 

200. Nouns become adjectives when they are used before other 
nouns, to express a quality or property belonging to them; as, "A 
gold ring ;" "a silver cup ;" " sea water." 

201. On the contrary, adjectives without a substantive are some- 
times used as nouns; as, 4t God rewards the good, and punishes the 
bad." — " The virtuous are the most happy." Adjectives used in this 
way are usually preceded by the, and, when applied to persons, are 
for the most part considered plural." 

DIVISION OF ADJECTIVES. 

202. Adjectives are sometimes divided into the following classes, viz. : — 

1. Common, which express quality; as, good, bad, sweet, &c. 

2. Circumstantial, which express circumstances of time, place, nation, &c ; as, 

daily, eastern, English, American, &c. 

3. 'Numeral, which express number; as, one, two, three ; first, second, &c. 

4. Participial, consisting of participles, or compounds of participles used as ad- 

jectives; as, "An amusing story;" "an unmerited rebuke;" "to pass 
unmolested" Some add — 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 39 

5. Definitive, which do not express any property of an object, bnt merely point 
it out. or limit in various ways the meaning' of the noun. To this class 
belong- such words as this, thai, each, every, some, both, &c. These some- 
times accompany the noun, and sometimes refer to it understood., or stand 
instead of it, af:er the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometimes called 
Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.) 

203. This classification of adjectives, however, is of but little practical use, as 
adjectives of all classes are used in the same way. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

204. Adjectives which express number are called Nu- 
meral adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and 
Ordinal. 

205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many ; they 
are one, two, three, Jour, &zc. 

206. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a num- 
ber; they are firsts second, third, &c. 

207. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are often 
used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construction of nouns : 
thus, by twos, by tens, by fifties. For ten's sake, for twenty' } s sake. 
One and one are two. Two is an even number. Five is the half 
of ten. Three fi ves are fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. Twice 
two is four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three fourths. 

208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

209. Most common and participial adjectives have three 
forms, called degrees of comparison : namely, Positive, 
Comparative, and Superlative. 

* In some arithmetics the language employed in the operation of multiplying — 
such as u Twice two ore four, twice three are six" — is incorrect. It should be. 
M Twice two is four.'" &c. : for the word two is used as a singular noun — the name 
of a number. The adverb " twice"' is not in construction with it. and cousequently 
does not make it plural. The meaning is. " The number two taken twice is equal 
to four." For the same reason we should say. u Three times two is six."' because 
the meaniug is. w T<co taken three times is six." If we say. " Three times one are 
three.*' we make "times" the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb 
really is -one." and "times" is in the objective of number (828). 2: 4 : : 6 : 12. 
should be read. " As 2 is to 4. so is 6 to 12 ;" not " As two nye to four, so are," &c. 
But when numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substan- 
tive expressed or understood, they must have a plural constractiou. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

210. The Positive expresses a quality simply; as, 

" Gold is heavy" 

211. The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher 

degree in one object than in another, or in sev- 
eral taken together ; as, " Gold is heavier than 
silver." " He is wiser than his teachers." 

212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object 

in the highest degree compared with several 
others ; as, " Gold is the most precious of the 
metals." 

213. Remark. — The superlative degree, when made by prefixing the adverb 
most, is often used to express a very high degree of a quality in an object, without 
directly comparing it with others ; as, " He is a most distinguished man." Thus 
used, it is called the superlative of eminence, and commonly has a or an before it, 
if the noun is singular, or it is without an article, if the noun is plural. The same 
thing is expressed by prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly, &c. ; as, " a very dis- 
tinguished, man." The superlative of comparison commonly has the before it. 

RULES FOR COMPARISON. 

214. Rule 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the com- 
parative by adding er to the positive, and the superlative 
by adding est ; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

Words ending in e mute, drop e before er and est ; as, large, 
larger, largest. (68.) 

215. Rule 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable are 
commonly compared by prefixing more and most to the 
positive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 

216. Remark. — Though this rule indicates the prevailing usage, 
yet adjectives of two syllables are not ^infrequently compared by er 
and est; as, "Our tenderest cares;" "The commonest materials." 
Dissyllables in le and y are generally compared in this way ; as able, 
abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y into i 
before er and est ; as, dry, drier, driest ; happy, happier, happiest 
(57) ; but y after a vowel is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 

217. A lower degree of a quality in one object compared with 
another, and the lowest compared with several others, is expressed 
by prefixing less and least to the positive ; as, sweet, less sweet, least 
sweet. This, by way of distinction, is sometimes called the compar- 
ison of diminution, or comparison descending. 



E 1 1 MOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 



41 



218. The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished without employing 
comparison, by annexing the syllable ish; as, white, whitish; black, blackish. 
These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also various shades, degrees, or 
modifications of quality are frequently expressed by connecting- with the adjective 
such words as rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, &c, and, in 
the comparative and superlative, by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, &c. 

219. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, &c, though derived 
from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of comparison, are not considered 
the comparative degree in English, any more than sucb words as preferable, previous, 
&c. They have neither the form nor the construction of the comparative (963-2). 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

220. The following adjectives are compared irregularly, 
viz. : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative* 

Good better best 

Bad, evil, or ill worse worst 

Little less, sometimes lesser least 

Much or many more most 

Late later, irregular, latter latest or last 

Near nearer nearest or next 

Far farther farthest 

Forth (obselete) further furthest 

Fore former . foremost or first 

Old older or elder oldest or eldest 

221. Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; many, to things 
that are numbered ; more and most, to both. Farther and farthest 
generally denote place or distance ; as, " The farther they w r ent, the 
more interesting was the scene ;" further and furthest refer to quan- 
tity or addition; as, "I have nothing further to say." Older and 
oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age or duration ; 
as, "Homer is an older poet than Virgil;" "The pyramids are 
older than the pantheon." Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld 
are applied only to persons of the same family, and denote priority 
of birth; as, "An elder brother." Later and latest have respect to 
time ; latter and last to position or order. 

222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to 
the comparative, and sometimes to the w r ord from which the compar- 
ative is formed ; as, upper, uppermost or upmost, from up ; nether, 
nethermost ; inner, innermost, or inmost, from in ; hinder, hinder- 
most, or hindmost, from hind ; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 

223. Adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
increase or diminution, can not properly be compared. 
These are— 

1. Numerals; as, one, two; third, fourth, &c. 

2. Proper adjectives ; as, English, American, Roman. 

3. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or material ; as circular, 

square, wooden, &c. 

4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position ; as, perpendic- 

ular, horizontal. 

5. Definitives ; as, each, every, all, some, &c. 

6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signification ; as, true, 

perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete. 

224. Remark. — Of these last, however, comparative and superlative forms are 
sometimes used, either to give greater force to the expression, or when the words 
are used in a sense not strictly absolute or superlative. The following are 
examples : — 

Extreme. — " The extremest of evils." — Bacon. " The extremest verge." — Shaks* 
"His extremest state." — Spencer. [So in Greek ea^arcoTarog.] 

Chief. — " Chiefest of the herdsmen." — Bible. " Chiefest courtier." — Shaks. 
'* First and chiefest." — Milton. 

Perfect. — " Having more perfect knowledge of that way," i. e., knowledge 
nearer to perfection. — Bible. So, " The most perfect society." — E. Everett. " Less 
perfect imitations." — Macaulay. 

More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. 

225. Parsing. — In parsing an adjective fully : 1. State 
its class. 2. Compare, if admitting comparison (209), and 
if not compared, so state it. 3. Tell its degree of com- 
parison, if compared. 4. The noun which it qualifies. 
Do this always in the same order, and in the fewest words 
possible. 

EXAMPLES. 

44 A wise son maketh a glad father." — " Wisdom is more precious 
than rabies." — " The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit than seven 
men that can render a reason." — " Lying lips are an abomination to 
the Lord." — "Blessed are the pure in heart." 

Wise is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies son. 

Glad is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies 
father. 



ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 43 

More precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, compara- 
tive, and qualifies wisdom. 
Wiser is a common adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and quali- 
fies sluggard. 
Seven is a numeral adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men. 
Blessed is a participial adjective, compared by more and most, positive, and qual- 
ifies men understood. 
Pure is a common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and qualifies men 

understood. 
226. Abbreviation. — This process may be abbreviated without 
loss, by omitting the class, as of no use in Syntax, and also omitting 
to mention the degree of comparison, except the comparative or 
superlative, taking it for granted, in adjective's compared, that it is in 
the positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of degree, in 
adjectives not compared, would be improper. In this way the pre- 
ceding adjectives may be parsed, thus : — 

Wise is an adjective, compared by er and est, and qualifies son. 

More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, comparative, and 

qualifies wisdom. 
Wiser is an adjective, compared by er and est, comparative, and qualifies 



227. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is an adjective? The pupil having- given the definition (195) in answer, 
for the purpose of illustrating' it, a list of nouns may again be formed on the black- 
board as directed (181) ; and supposing- the list to be man, horse, apple, house, tree, 
book. &c, the teacher may take them up, each in order, and proceed in some 
such way as the following : — 

Man. — What part of speech is man ? Why ? Are all men exactly alike ? If 
not, mention some things in which they differ. Ans. Some are tall ; some are 
short ; some old; some young ; some learned; some unlearned; some wise; some 
foolish, &c. 

When you say " a tall man, a short man, an old man, a young man,' what is the 
use of the words tall, short, old, &c. ? Ans. They are used to qualify the word 
" man," by telling what sort of a man is meant (196-1). What part of speech are 
words used to qualify nouns ? Then what part of speech are tall, short, old, 
young, &c. ? Prefix an adjective to each of the nouns in the list above, so as to 
make sense. Prefix as many adjectives to each noun separately, as you can think 
of, to make sense ; thus : Horse — a large horse, a small horse, a young horse, &c. 
What part of speech is large, small, young, &c. ? Why ? 

COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 

Are all men equally tall ? Ans. No ; some men are taller than others. When 
you say, " James is taller than John," in what form or degree is the adjective 
taller ? What does the comparative degree express (211) ? How is the compara- 
tive degree formed ? When is the comparative formed by annexing er ? When 
by prefixing more ? What is the comparative form of tall, short, old, young, &c. ? 
Wbat is the comparative form of learned, unlearned, foolish, virtuous, &c. ? Pot 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the adjectives prefixed to nouns in the list above, in the comparative form.— Form 
sentences, each of which shall contain a noun, and its adjective in the comparative 
degree. 

SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 

When you compare James with several other persons, and find that he exceeds 
them all in tallness, how would you express it ? Ans. I would say, " James is 
the tallest." What form of the adjective is tallest ? What does the superlative 
express ? In how many ways is it formed ? When, by annexing - est to the posi- 
tive ? When, by prefixing most ? What is the superlative of tall, short, old, 
young, rich, poor, &c. ? — of learned, unlearned, beautiful, virtuous, &c. 1 Put 
the adjectives prefixed to the nouns, in the list above, in the superlative form. Form 
sentences, in each of which there shall be one of the above nouns, and its adjective 
in the superlative degree. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Compare — Bright, diligent, thin, noble, bad, pretty, 

fearful, brave, warm, active, worthy, cold, large, industrious, 

affable, wise, obedient, gloomy, able, sad, little, strong, near, 

dutiful, serene, big, good, careless, hot, late, fruitful. 

Add to each one of these adjectives a noun which it can properly qualify ; as, 
" A bright day," " a diligent student," &c. 

2. In what form are the following adjectives ? — Mildest, 
better, high, more, uttermost, happiest, worthless, least, whiter, 
lowermost, worse, cruel, eldest, gentle, magnificent, best, many, 
less, gayest, peaceful, virtuous, sweetest, evil, inmost, happier, 
miserable, temperate, useful, delicate, honorable. 

Compare each of these adjectives. 

Add to each a noun which it can properly qualify. 

3. In the following phrases, tell which words are nouns, and which are adjec- 
tives. Parse as directed (182, 194, 225). 

A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the benevolent 
lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older companion ; 
man's chief concern ; a lady's lap-dog ; most splendid talents ; 
the liveliest disposition ; a pleasant temper; the raging bil- 
lows ; temples magnificent ; silent shades ; excellent corn ; a 
loftier tower ; a happier disposition ; the third day ; a round 
ball ; a square table ; one good book is better than many bad 
books. 

4. Take a paragraph in any book ; point out the articles, nouns, and adjectives 
Parse them ; but, in nouns, omit the case. 



E T YMOLOG Y PRONOUNS. 



PRONOUNS. 



46 



228. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
" John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 

229. The noun which the pronoun represents or designates is called 
its antecedent, because, in the third person, it usually stands before 
the pronoun ; and, in the first and second, the person intended is indi- - 
cated by the pronoun itself. 

230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speaking, 
to prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the noun. Thus, 
without the pronoun, the above example would read, "John is a good 
boy ; John is diligent in John's studies" (236). 

231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun; as, 
« You and /must attend to our duty." 

232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Relative, 
Interrogative, and Adjective. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

233. Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish the 
person by their form. They are either Simple or Com- 
pound. 

SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

234. The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, 
it; with their plurals, we, you, they. 

235. Of these, I is of the first person, and denotes the speaker ; 
thou is of the second, and denotes the person addressed ; he, she, it, 
are of the third, and denote the person or thing spoken of (111). 

236. The pronouns I and tfiou denote the speaker, and the person 
addressed, without previous mention, or even knowledge of their 
names, the persons intended being sufficiently indicated by their 
presence, or some other circumstance. The pronouns of the third 
person refer to some person or thing previously mentioned, or easily 
understood from the context, or from the nature of the sentence. 

237. He, she, and they, are frequently used as general terms in 
the beginning of a sentence, equivalents " the person," &c, with- 
out reference to a noun going before ; as, " He [the person] that lov- 
eth pleasure shall be a poor man." 



46 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



238. They is also used in a vague sense for " people," in such 
expressions as " They say," like the French on, or the German man. 

239. To personal pronouns, like nouns (110), belong 
Person, Gender, Number, and Case. They are thus de- 
clined : — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Norn. Poss. Obj. Norn. Poss. Obj. 

1. M. or F. I mine me We ours us 

2. M. or F. Thou (244) thine thee You (245) yours you 

C Masc. He his him They theirs them 

3. j Fern. She hers her They theirs them 
( NeuL It its it They theirs them 

OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

240. In many Grammars, the possessive of all the pronouns, except he and it, has 
two forms, as follows: My or mine; thy or thine ; her or hers ; our or ours ; your 
or yours ; their or theirs. According to this arrangement, the first form, my, thy, 
&c., is always used before a noun denoting the object possessed ; the second form, 
mine, thine, &c, never before that noun, but only referring to it as previously men- 
tioned, or evident from the connexion. The possessive case of nouns is used in both 
ways. To this classification there is no important objection, and such as prefer it 
may readily adopt it, though, for reasons assigned (289), a different classification is 
here preferred. Mine and thine are sometimes used as possessives for mv and 
thy (293). y 

241. Some, again, regard my, thy, &c, as the only forms of the possessive case, 
and mine, thine, &c, not as a possessive case at all, but as a substitute for the pos- 
sessive case of the pronoun and the noun referred to together, and that it is in the 
nominative or objective case, according as the noun referred to would be, in the full 
expression ; thus, " Your book is old, mine is new/' is equivalent to " Your book is 
old, my book is new." Hence it is inferred, that mine is not a possessive case but 
a substitute for my book, and the nominative to is. This, though plausible is obvi- 
ously incorrect. If, instead of the pronoun mine, we substitute a noun, that noun 
will have to be in the possessive case; thus, -Your book is old, John's is new " 
The construction m these two sentences being identical, if "John's" be the posses 
aye case, so also is « mine ;" and if in the possessive, it can not be the nominative to 
"«." The mistake lies in considering mine a substitute for my book, whereas it 
really is a substitute only for my, including such a reference to the word book in the 
preceding part of the sentence, as renders its repetition in the second part not only 
unnecessary, but, according to the usage of the language, improper. The difference 
between the construction of the noun and the pronoun, in such sentences, is simply 
this : the possessives mine, thine, &c, according to usage, are never used before a 
noun, but the possessive of the noun is used both before a noun and after it When 
it is deemed proper to express the noun after the pronoun, the form mine, &c, must 
be changed for my, &c. Thus, we can not say " Mine book," but " My book •» 
but we can with equal propriety say, " John's book," or " The book is John's."— 
See App. I. 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 47 

242. In the same manner, may be explained the use of the possessive after tran- 
sitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions ; thus, '' James lost his 
books, and I gave him miner meaning my books. — " A picture of the king's," is a 
picture of (i. e., from) the king's pictures. So " A book of mine," is a book of (from) 
my books. " A friend of yours," is a friend of (from) your friends. It is worthy of 
notifce, that though this use of the possessive after of, originally and strictly implies 
selection, or a part only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection 
is, or ever can be, intended. Thus we may say, " That house of yours," " that 
farm ol yours," without intending to imply that any other houses or farms belong to 
you ; and when we say, " That head of yours," selection is obviously excluded by 
the sense. 

243. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, we 
is frequently applied to one person. 

244. Thou is now used only in the solemn style, in addresses to 
the Deity, or to some important object in nature, or to mark special 
emphasis, or in the language of contempt. Ye, the plural of thou, 
is seldom used (except as the subject of the imperative), and only in 
the solemn style. It is sometimes used as the objective for you ; as, 
4 'Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye!" — Shales. 

245. You, the common plural of thou, is now used also to denote one person, but, 
even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. This usage has become so 
fixed and uniform, that some eminent grammarians contend for its being regarded 
as singular. No advantage, hovv r ever, would be gained by adopting this proposal, 
and it seems to accord much more with simplicity, as well as with fact, to regard it 
as a plural which has come by use to be applied in this manner. In certain kinds 
of writing (243), tee is used in the same way, and so also is the corresponding pro- 
noun in French, and some other modern languages, in which, however, it is always 
regarded as a plural form.* 

246. The pronoun it is used in a variety of ways : — 

1. Properly it is used instead of a neuter noun, word, or substan- 

tive phrase ; as, " Life is short ; it should be well improved.' 1 
" Man is a noun ; it is irregular in the plural." " James is 
a good scholar, and he knows &," viz., that he is a good 
scholar. "And the burden that was upon it shall be cut 
off; for the Lord hath spoken it." — Is. xxii. 25. 

2. It is used as an indefinite subject of the verb to be, followed by 
> a predicate in any person or number ; as, " It is I;" " It is 

you ;" " It is they" &c. 

* " The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now generally 
applied alike to one person or to more. This usage, however it may seem to 
involve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere gramma- . 
rian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. We do not, however, think it necessary or 
advisable to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing this 
pronoun and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is manifestly bet- 
ter to say that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure enallage." — Goold 
Brown, p. 137. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

3. It is used in the same manner after the verb to be, in interrog- 

ative sentences ; as, " Who is it?" " What is it?" &c. 

4. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to such words as to be, 

to happen, to become, and the like, referring to an infinitive 
mood, or substantive phrase which follows the verb, and is its 
true subject; as, "It is an honor for man to cease from 
strife ;" i. e., To cease from strife is an honor for man. " It 
has been proved, that the earth revolves on its axis ;" i. e., It, 
namely, that the earth revolves on its axis, has been proved. 

5. It is used indefinitely before certain verbs, to denote some cause 

unknown, or general, or well known, whose action is express- 
ed by the verb ; as, " It rains ;" " It snows ;" " It thunders ;" 
" It is cold ;" " It is hot," &c. Verbs before which it is thus 
used, are said to be impersonal (520). 

6. It is sometimes used as a mere expletive ; as, " Come and trip 

it as you go." 

247. The possessives, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be 
written hefs, iVs, oufs, yours, their* s. 

248. His and its, before a noun, are possessive pronouns ; without 
a noun following, they are the possessive case (292). Her, before a 
noun, is the possessive pronoun ; without a noun, it is the objective 
case. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

249. Myself (ourself), thyself (yourself), himself, herself, itself, 
with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called Com- 
pound personal pronouns. They are used in two cases — the nomi- 
native, and the objective. In the nominative they are emphatic, and 
are added to their respective personal pronouns, or are used instead 
of them; as, "I myself did it." " Himself shall come." In the 
objective they are reflexive, showing that the agent is also the object 
of his own act ; as, " Judas went and hanged himself" 

250. The simple pronouns, also, are sometimes used in a reflexive 
sense : as, "Thou hast hewed thee out a sepulchre, as he that hew- 
eth him out a sepulchre on high." — Bible. 

251. Ourself and. yourself axe used as compounds, corresponding to 
we and you, applied to an individual ; as, " We ourself will follow." 
— Shaks. " You must do it yourself." 

252. The possessive emphatic or reflexive, is made by adding the 
word own to the possessives my, thy, his, her, &c. (295) ; as, " God 
created man in his own image." 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 49 

PARSING. 

253. Personal pronouns are parsed nearly like the sub- 
stantives for which they stand (182). Thus, "I love" — I 
is a pronoun of the first person, masculine or feminine, in 
the nominative singular. 

As an additional exercise, a reason may be assigned for each statement, thus : — 
I is a pronoun, because it stands for a noun or name. 

personal, — its form determines its person. 

first person, — it represents trie speaker. 

Masculine, or Feminine', — it denotes male or female. 

Nominative, — subject of love. 

Singular, — it denotes but one. 

254. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

What is a pronoun ? What is a personal pronoun ? In the sentence, " John is 
hi the garden; he says it is full of trees," for what noon, or name, does the word he 
stand ? Then what part of speech is he ? Why ? For what noun does the word 
it stand? — then what part of speech is it? Why? What other words stand 
instead of nouns ? (Write a list of them on the blackboard.) 

Write sentences each containing one of these pronouns, and tell for what noun 
it stands. 

Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any reading-lesson, or book, and 
say for what nouns they stand- 

EXERCISES. 

1. Parse the following list, as directed (253). — I, thou, we, 
me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them, its, theirs, 
you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, it; — myself, ourselves, your- 
self, himself, themselves. 

2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, and parse them ; if of 
the first or second person, state what they designate ; if of the third, state the nouns 
for which they stand. 

James says he is older than I ; but I am taller than he. 

That book is mine ; take it and read it. Let them do it 

themselves. When you learn the lesson, come to me, and I 

will hear you say it. They will go when we return. Thou 

art the man. Your knife is sharper than mine ; lend it to 

me, if you please, till I mend my pen. 

3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain a pronoun in the nominativf 
case — in the possessive case — in the objective case? 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

4. Change the following sentences, so that it shall be omitted, and the subject oi 
thing spoken of shall stand first (264-4). 

It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. It 

is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that the 

cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk, 

5. Write sentences of this kind both ways. 

II. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

255. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and con- 
nects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it called the 
antecedent ; as, " The master who taught us." 

256. The antecedent of a relative may be a noun, a pronoun, an 
infinitive mood, a clause of a sentence, or any fact or thing implied 
in it ; as, "A Icing tuho is just, makes his people happy ;" " He thai 
is wise, is wise for himself;" " He who reads all will not be able to 
think, without which it is impertinent to read ; nor to act. without 
which it is impertinent to think ;" '* We are bound to obey the Divine 
law, which we can not do without Divine aid ;" " The man was said 
to be innocent, which he was not." 

257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Simple and 
Compound. 

258. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that? 
and what. That and what are indeclinable, and used only 
in the nominative and objective. Who is masculine or fern- 
inine, and which is masculine, feminine, or neuter. They 
are declined thus : — 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 
Norn. Who Which 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Which 

259. Who is applied to persons only ; as, u The boy 
who reads." 

260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 
without life ; as, " The dog which barks" — " The book 
which was lost." 

261. This relative, as in Latin., sometimes, for the sake of greater perspicuity, has 
its antecedent repeated after it; as, "I gave him a knife with an ivory handle, 



ETYMOLOGY — -PRONOUNS. 61 

which knife he still has." This construction, however, is inelegant, and should be 
avoided. 

262. Which is applied also to collective nouns, expressing collec- 
tions of persons, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the 
persons composing it; as, "The committee which was appointed." 
Also to names of persons considered only as a word; as, "Nero, 
which is only another name for cruelty." 

263. Which has for its possessive whose ; as, "A religion whose 
origin is Divine." Instead of "whose" however, the objective with 
of before it is more common ; as, "A religion the origin of which is 
Divine." 

264. That is applied to both persons and things ; as, 
" The boy that reads ;" " the dog that barks ;" " the book 
that was lost." 

265. What is applied to things only, and is never used 
but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is what I 
wanted." 

266. In the above example, properly speaking-, what neither includes the antece- 
dent, nor has it understood, in the ordinary sense of that expression. If it included 
the antecedent, then what would be of two cases at the same time, which, if not 
absurd, is an anomaly not to be readily admitted. If the antecedent were under- 
stood, it could be supplied, and then the sentence would stand, " This is the thing 
what I wanted." But this is not English. The truth is, what is a simple relative, 
having*, wherever used, like all other relatives, but one case ; but yet it has this 
peculiarity of usage, that it always refers to a general antecedent, omitted, but 
easily supplied by the mind, and to which belongs the other case in the construction. 
The antecedent referred to is always the word " thing" or " things" or some gen- 
eral or indefinite tenia, obvious from the sense. When that antecedent is expressed, 
the relative following must be which or that, but never what. Thus, " This is what 
I wanted," is equivalent to " This is that which, or the thing which, I wanted." 
Hence, though it is true that what is equivalent in meaning to that which, or the 
thing which, yet the error to which this has imperceptibly led, viz., that what is a 
compound relative, and includes the antecedent, should be carefully avoided. — See 
App. II. 

267. The office of the relative is twofold : — 

1. It is sometimes merely additive, and connects its clause with 
the antecedent, for the purpose of further describing, without modi- 
fying it ; thus used, it is a mere connective, nearly equivalent to and, 
with a personal pfonoun he, she, it, &c. ; as, " Light is a body which 
moves with great celerity" = " Light is a body, and it moves with 
great celerity." 

2. It is more commonly restrictive, and connects its clause, as an 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adjunct, with the antecedent, in order to modify or restrict its mean- 
ing. Thus used, the relative with its clause is equivalent to an adjec- 
tive ; as, " Every thing which has life is an animal" = " Every living 
thing is an animal." When used in this way, the relative can not be 
resolved into and with a personal pronoun, for we can not say, " Ev- 
ery thing is an animal, and it has life." 

268. The relatives who and which are used in both senses. That 
is used in restrictive, more commonly than in descriptive clauses. 

269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pro- 
noun (303), equivalent to this or these, and agrees with a substantive 
following it; as, "Which things are an allegory" = " These things 
are an allegory." 

270. In English, a relative must always be in the same sentence with its antece- 
dent, and, if restrictive, in close connexion with it. In Latin, the relative often has 
its antecedent in a preceding - sentence, and connected with it by a conjunctive term. 
When this is the case, it should be rendered into English by a demonstrative, or 
personal pronoun. This difference of idiom should be carefully marked by classical 
students.— See Lat. Gr., §99, Obs. 8. 

271. In such sentences as the following — " Shun such as are vicious'' — " Send 
such as you have*' — some grammarians consider the word as a relative : in the first 
example, as the nominative to are; and in the second, as the objective, governed 
by have. Others, more properly, regard it, in all such sentences, as a conjunction, 
and the expressions as elliptical — to be supplied thus : " Shun such as [those who] 
are vicious." — " Send such as [those which] you have." — See App. III. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

272. The relatives who, which, and what, with ever or soever an- 
nexed, are called compound relatives. They are used instead of the 
simple relative and a general or indefinite antecedent; as, " Whoso- 
ever committeth sin is the servant of sin ;" that is, "Any one or every 
one who committeth sin," &c. " Whatever is e*vil should be avoid- 
ed;" that is, "Every thing which is evil," &c. 

273. Like the relative what, the compound relatives are used only when the 
indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is expressed, the simple relative 
who, tuhich, or that, should be used as in the preceding examples. 

274. It is therefore not correct to say, either that these relatives include the ante- 
cedents, and so have two cases, or that the antecedent is understood. The same 
reasoning that is applied to the relative what (266), is equally applicable to the com- 
pound relatives, only it must be remembered that the antecedent referred to in these, 
and to which one of the cases properly belongs, is always a general or indefinite 
term. 

275. In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expressed, either before or 
after the compound relative, for the sake of greater emphasis or precision ; as, " Bles- 
sed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me." — E ng. Bible. " Whosoever will, let 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 53 

him take the water of life." This usage, however, is now nearly obsolete, except 
with the word whatever; as, " Whatever you do, let it be done well." 

276. Whoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whosoever, is now obso- 
lete. 

277. Whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, are often used before 
substantives, as a sort of indefinite adjective ; as, " Whatever course you take, act 
uprightly.'' When thus used, the noun is sometimes placed between what, which, 
or whose, and soever; as, " What course soever' — "Into whose house soever ye 
enter." 

PARSING. 

278. The relative is parsed by stating its gender, num- 
ber, case, and antecedent (the gender and number being 
always the same as those of the antecedent (742) ; thus — 

" The boy who studies what is useful, will improve." 

Who is a relative pronoun, masculine in the nominative singular, and refers to 

"boy," as its antecedent. 
What is a relative pronoun, neuter in the nominative singular, and refers to 
"thing," or " that," as its antecedent, omitted: if supplied, what must be 
changed into which (266) ; thus, the thing- which, or that which. 
The pupil may assign reasons for the statements made in parsing, as exempli- 
fied (254). 

EXERCISES ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column on the left side, 
and write after each its proper relative; thus, "The man — who ;" "The bird — 
which" 

2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the antecedent or word 
to which it relates. Also state whether it is additive or restrictive (267) : — 

A man who is generous will be honored. God, by whose 

kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, 

is eternal. That is the book which I lost. He who steals 

my purse, steals trash. This is the boy whom we met. This 

is the man that did it. These are the books that you bought. 

The person who does no good, does harm. The woman who 

was hurt, is well. This is the cat, that killed the rat, that 

ate the malt, that lay in the house, that Jack built. 

3. In each of the following sentences point out the compound relative — mention 
the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the antecedent in each sentence, 
and make the necessary change in the relative (273) : — 

Whoever steals my purse, steals trash. Whoever does no 
good, does harm. Whatever purifies the heart, fortifies it. 
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to 
5* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

them also. Whoever sins, will suffer. I love whoever loves 
me Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do. Whatso- 
ever I command you, do it. 

4. In the following- sentences, wherever it can be done, change the relative and 
antecedent for the compound relative : — 

Bring with you everything which you see. Any one who 

told such a story, has been misinformed. Anything that is 

worth doing at all, is worth doing well. Anything that gives 

pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure. Every 

one who loves pleasure, will be a poor man. From every 

one, to whom much is given, shall much be required. 

III. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

279. Who, which, and what, when used in asking ques- 
tions, are called Interrogative Pronouns ; as, " Who is 
there?"—" Which will you take ?"— " What did he say?" 

280. Who and which are declined like the relatives (258). 

281. In questions, who is equivalent to what person ; which and 
what have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, they belong, 
or refer to one understood, but easily supplied ; thus, " Who [what 
person] is there ?" — " Which [book] will you take ?"— " What [thing] 
did he say ?" 

282. Who applies to persons only ; which and what to persons or 
things. 

283. As applied to persons ; who inquires for the name ; which for the individual ; 
what for the character or occupation ; as, " Who wrote that book ?■" — " Mr. Web- 
ster." — " Which of them?" — "Noah Webster." — •' What is he ?" — "A lexicogra- 
pher." 

284. The same pronouns used responsively, in the beginning of a dependent 
clause, or in what is called the indirect question (i. e., in a way which, in an inde- 
pendent clause, 'would be a direct question), are properly neither interrogative^ 
nor relatives, but a sort of indefinite pronouns (806). This will be best illustrated 
by an example : — 

Interrogative. — " Who wrote that letter?" 

Relative. — " I know the person who wrote that letter;" that is, I am acquainted 

with him. 
Indefinite. — " I know who wrote that letter ;" that is, I know by whom that letter 

was written. 

285. It is necessary to these words being regarded as indefinites — I. That 
they begin a dependent clause ; 2. That they do not ask a question ; 3. That 
an antecedent can not be supplied without changing the sense ; and 4. That 
the whole olause be either the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or prepo- 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 65 

sition. These marks will apply to all the following examples : " I know who 
wrote that letter." — ''Tell me who wrote that letter." — ■" Do you know who 
wrote that letter ?'' — " Nobody knows icho he is." — " Who he is* can not be 
known." — "Did he tell you tvho he is ?" — u We can not tell which is he." — " I 
know not tchat I shall do." — "It is uncertain to whom that book belongs," — 
" Teach me what is truth, and tchat is error." 

PARSING. 

286. Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and the 
indirect questions, are parsed by stating their gender, num- 
ber, and case ; thus : — 

44 Wlio comes ? I know not ivJw comes." 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or feminine in the nominative sin- 
gular. 

Who is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pronoun, used responsively), 
masculine or feminine in the nominative singular. 

Reasons may be assigned for each statement, as exemplified (254). 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, tvhich, and what, are 
relatives ; in which, interrogatives ; and in which, indefinites. 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. To whom did you 
give that book ] What I do, thou knowest not now. Who 
you are, what you are, or to whom you belong, no one 
knows. What shall I do ] Who built that house ] Do you 
know by whom that house was built ? Is that the man who 
built that house ? Which book is yours ] Do you know 
which book is yours ] I saw a book which was said to be 
yours. I know which book is yours. What in me is dark, 
illumine. What is crooked, can not be made straight. What 
is wanting, can not be numbered. What is wanted ? I know 
what is wanted. 

2. Write sentences, each of which shall contain one of these pronouns in one or 
other of these different senses. 

IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

287. Adjective Pronouns are words used some- 
times like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes 
like pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

288. Adjectives used as nouns, or with a noun understood, com- 
monly take the article the before them (201) ; as, the young; the old ; 
the good, "&c. Adjective pronouns do not. 

289. Of the adjective pronouns, the Possessives clearly have a double character. 
As an adjective, they qualify a noun, and as a pronoun, stand instead of a noun. 
The Distributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites, as adjectives, qualify a noun 
expressed or understood, or they stand instead of a noun, and thus may be regarded 
sometimes as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns. Hence they are classed by 
some grammarians as adjectives, and called pronominal adjectives ; and by others 
as pronouns, and called adjective pronouns. The latter classification and name are 
here preferred, because they have been admitted into the grammars of almost all 
languages ; and because a change of established nomenclature is an evil of so 
serious a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for the most urgent reasons. 
Still, it is a matter of little moment in itself which of these classifications is adopted. 
The principal point for the learner is, to know which the words are, and their char- 
acter and use ; and every teacher may adopt that classification and name which he 
prefers. For the convenience of such as prefer to consider them pronominal t 
adjectives, they are classed as definitives (202-5). 

290. Adjective Pronouns are divided into four classes: 
Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

291. The Possessive Pronouns are such as denote 
possession. They are, my, thy, his, her, its, — our, your, 
their — own. 

292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal, and combine the 
office of the adjective and pronoun, for they always limit one noun denoting the 
object possessed, and stand instead of another denoting the possessor. They agree 
with the possessive case of the personal pronoun in meaning, but differ from it in 
construction. The possessive pronoun, like the adjective, is always followed by its 
noun ; as, " This is my book;" the possessive case of the personal is never followed 
by a noun, but refers to one known or previously expressed ; as, " This book is 
miner The possessive case of nouns is used both ways; as, "This is John's 
book ;" or, " This book is John's." 

293. Formerly mine and thine were used before a vowel, or the letter h, instead 
of my and thy ; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities ;" " Commune with thine heart." 
This form is still in use. 

294. His, her, and its, when followed by a substantive, are possessive pronouns; 
not followed by a substantive, his is the possessive case of he ; her, the objective 
case of she; and its, the possessive case of it. In the English Bible, his is neuter 
as well as masculine, and is used where its would now be used. See Prov. xxiii. 
31 ; 7*. Ix. 22. 

295. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is added to the other 
possessive pronouns, or to the possessive case of nouns, to render the possession ex- 



ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS. 67 

pressed by them emphatic; as, "My own book;" "The boy's own book." The 
possessive pronoun, with ou:n following it, may have its substantive understood; as, 
" This book is my own." 

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 

296. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as 
taken separately. They are, each, every, either, neither. 

297. Each denotes two or more objects taken separately. 

298. Every denotes each of more than two objects taken individu- 
ally, and comprehends them all. 

299 Either means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes used 
for each ; as, " On either side of the river." 

300. Neither means not either. 

301. The distributives are always of the third person singular, 
even when they relate to the persons speaking, or to those spoken 
to; as, "Each of us — each of you — each of them — has his faults." 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

302. The Demonstrative pronouns point out objects 
definitely. They are this, that, with their plurals, these, 
those. 

303. Yon and which, before a noun, seem more properly to belong to this class of 
words than to any other; as, " Yon trembling coward;" " Yon tall cliff;" " Which 
things are an allegory ;"=" These tilings," &c. 

304. Former and latter, first and last, with the prefixed, though often used like 
that and this, referring to words contrasted, are properly adjectives (201). 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

305. The Indefinite pronouns designate objects indefi- 
nitely. They are, none, any, all, such, whole, some, both, 
one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three last are 
declined like nouns. 

306. To these maybe added, no, much, many, few, several, and 
the like ; also, who, which, and what, used responsively (284). 

307. One, denoting a definite number, is a numeral adjective (205) ; as, " One 
man is sufficient." But one, referring indefinitely to an individual, is an indefinite 
pronoun. Thus used, with its noun following, it is indeclinable like the adjective ; 
as, " One man's interest is not to be preferred to another's." Without its noun 
following, it is botl i singular and plural, and is declinable, like the substantive ; as, 
" One is as good as another ;" " One's interest is as good as another's;" "He tcok 
the old bird, and left the young ones." " One might say." 

The same remark is applicable to the indefinites, other and another. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

308. None (no one) is used in both numbers ; and is never foi 
lowed by a substantive ; as, " None is so rude ;" " Among none, is 
there more sobriety." 

309. Another is a compound of the article an and other. 

310. Some is used with numerals, to signify about ; as, " Some 
fifty years ago." This should not be imitated. 

311. The expressions, each other, and one another, form what may be called 
reciprocal pronouns, and express a mutual relation between different persons. 
They have this peculiarity of construction, that the first word of each pair is in the 
nominative, in apposition with the plural subject, -which it distributes, and the 
second in the objective, governed by the transitive verb or preposition ; as, " They 
loved each other,'" i. e., They loved, each the other; " They wrote to one another/' 
i. e., They wrote, one to another (673). 

312. Some of these indefinites, and words of similar signification, are sometimes 
used adverbially with the comparative degree ; as, " Are you any better V " I 
am some better;" "He is none the better — all the better," &c. ; " Are you better 
in any degree ?" &c. 

PARSING. 

313. Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the class 
to which they belong, and the word which they qualify, 
thus :— 

" Every day brings its own duties." 
Every is a distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying " day. 1 ' 
Its is a possessive adjective pronoun, emphatic, qualifying " duties." 
Own is a dependent possessive adjective pronoun ; joined with its, to render the 
possession expressed emphatic (295). 

EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and sentences, and 
parse them : — 

Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own 

fortune. Do good to all men — injury to none. All things 

come alike to all. Your own friend, and your father's 

friend, forsake not. This one, or that one, will answer my 

purpose ; both are good. Some men love their money more 

than their honor. 

EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS PROMISCUOUSLY. 

In the following phrases and sentences, point out the pronouns, and parse them — 
each as already directed : — 

Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is 

old, he will not depart from it. Remember thy Creator and 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 59 

Redeemer, in the days of thy youth. He is an object of pity, 
who can not respect himself. Feeble are all those pleasures 
in which the heart has no share. 

EXERCISES ON ALL THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

In the following- sentences, point out the nouns, articles, adjectives, and pronouns, 
in the order in which they occur, and parse them : — 

" My son, forget not my law ; but let thy heart keep my 
commandments : For length of days, and long life, and 
peace, shall they add to thee. Let not mercy and truth for- 
sake thee : bind them about thy neck, write them upon the 
table of thy heart. Honor the Lord with thy substance, and 
with the first-fruits of all thine increase : So shall thy barns 
be filled with plenty, and thy presses shall burst out with 
new wine. Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. Length 
of days are in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and 
honor. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her 
paths are peace." 



THE VERB. 

314. A Verb is a word used to express the act, being, 
or state of its subject; as, " John runs;" " The boy 
sleeps;" "We are;" " He is loved." Hence — 

A word that expresses the act, being, or state of a thing, is a 
verb. Thus, we say runs is a verb, because it expresses the act 
of John, &c. — See App. IV. 

315. The subject of a verb is that person or tiling, whose act, being, or state, the 
verb expresses. Thus, in the preceding" examples, " runs," expresses the act of 
"John" — " sleeps," the state of " boy" — " are," the being or existence of " we" and 
"is loved," the state of'he" as the object acted upon (369). In like manner, in 
the sentences, " Let him come ;" " I saw a man cutting wood ;" " let" expresses 
the act of thou understood, denoting the person addressed — " come" the act of 
"him" and "cutting" the act of " man." 

316. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and Intrans- 
itive. * 

* The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generally 
adopted and approved by the best grammarians, that any discussion of the subject 
is now unnecessary, 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

317. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one 
person or thing to another ; as, " James strikes the table ;" 
" The table is struck by James (367). 

318. An Intransitive verb expresses the being or 
state of its subject, or an act not done to another; as, "X 
am;" "He sleeps;" "You run" 

319. In this division, Transitive (passing over) verbs include all those which 
express an act that passes over from the actor to an object ; or the meaning of which 
has such a reference to an object, as to render the expression of it necessary to com- 
plete the sense; as, " He loves us ;" "/hear you;" u James resembles his 
brother-" " He has a book." 

Intransitive verbs include all those which are not transitive, whether they express 
action or not; as, " I am •" " You walk;" " They run." 

320. These two classes of verbs may be thus distinguished : — 

1. Transitive verbs in the active voice require an object after them to complete 
the sense; as, "James strikes the table;" — Intransitive verbs do not require an 
object after them, but the sense is complete without it ; as, " He sits ;" ,f You ride ;' 
" The wind blows ;" " The wheel turns" 

2. As the object of a transitive verb is in the objective case, any verb which 
makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it. them, after k, is transitive. A verb that 
does uot make sense with one of these words after it, is intransitive ; thus, strikes is 
transitive, because we can say, "James strikes me;" sleeps is intransitive, because 
we can not say, " James sleeps me" Hence — 

When a verb has an object, it is Transitive : — when it has not an object, 
it is Intransitive. 

3. In the use of transitive verbs, three things are always implied — the actor, 
the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of intransitive verbs, there are 
only two — the subject, and the being, state, or act, ascribed to it. 

321. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive — 

1. When followed by a noun of the same or similar signification, 

as an object; as, intransitive, "I run;' 1 transitive. "Irwn a 
race." 

2. By the addition of another word; as, intransitive, "I laugh;" 

transitive, "I laugh at" (375). 

322. The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and some- 
times in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, " Charity 
thinketh no evil," the verb is transitive. In the sentence, " Think 
on me," it is intransitive. 

323. So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have 
no object, and the sense intended, being merely to denote an exercise, is com- 
plete without it. Thus, when we say, " That boy reads and writes well" — 
"reads" and "writes" are really transitive verbs ; because, a person who reads 
and writes, must read or write something. Yet, as the sense is complete with- 



ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 61 

out the. object, nothing more being intended than simply, '■ That boy is a good 
reader and writer," the verbs, as here used, are intransitive. 

324. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, " John runs.'' what part of speech is John ? — Why ? What is 
the use of runs in the sentence ? It tells what John does. Is what a person or 
thing- does, the act of that person or thing ? What part of speech are words 
that express the act of a person or thing 1 Verbs. Then what part of speech 
is runs? — Why? Of what is it that verbs express the act, being, or state? 
Of their subject. Whose act does runs express ? Then what is John to the verb 
runs ? When you say, "John runs," does it mean that he does anything to 
another ? What sort of verbs express an act not done to another? What kind 
of a verb, then, is runs ? If you say, "John cuts wood," which word tells what 
John does ? Then what part of speech is cuts ? Is it transitive or intransitive ? 
—Why ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why — which 
are transitive, and why — which are intransitive, and why. 

The boy studies grammar. The girls play. Grass grows 
in the meadows. The farmer ploughs his field, and sows his 
grain. Romulus built Rome. The sun shines. The winds 
blow. The tree fell. Bring your books, and prepare your 
lessons. Have you recited? Who read last] God created 
the heavens and the earth. The earth produces fruit for the 
use of man. Columbus discovered America. Love your 
enemies. 

2. Write a list of nouns, or names of things, in a column on the left side of the 
blackboard; write after each a word which tells something that each of these 
does ; tell what part of speech that word is, and why : if a verb, whether transi- 
tive or intransitive, and why. 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

325. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular > 
Irregular, and Defective, 

326. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense 
and past participle by adding ed (68) to the present ; as, 
present, love; past, loved; perfect participle, loved (494). 

327. An irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present; 
as, present, write; past, wrote; perfect participle, written. 

6 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

328. A defective verb is one that wants some of its 
parts. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary and Imper- 
sonal verbs, 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

329. Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the 
help of which other verbs are inflected. They are do, 
have, be;' — shall, will ;— may, can, must: and, except be, 
they are used only in the present and the past tense ; thus : 

Present* Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, . 

330. Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, belong to irregu- 
lar verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parts. 

THE USE OF AUXILIARIES. 

331. Verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at first used as inde- 
pendent verbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb in the infini- 
tive — the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now is after such verbs 
as see, hear, fee 7 , &c, (877); thus, "I can [to] do" — "They will [to] write" — 
"We could [to] go," &c. ; and some grammarians contend that they should be 
so considered still (381). 

332. Shall, will, may, can, and their past tenses, should, would, &c, as aux- 
iliaries, retain the personal endings of the second person singular ; thus, shalt, 
wilt, mayst, canst — shouldst, wouldst, mightst, couldst. But in their present they 
do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular; thus they have 
shall, will, may, can — not shalls, wills, mays, cans. This will be seen by their 
use in the inflection of verbs. 

333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tense, and did, in the past, to 
render the expression emphatic ; as, " I do love" — "I did love." Also when the 
verb in these tenses is used interrogative]}', or negatively ; as, "Does he study V 
■ — "He does not study." — ** Did he go ?" — " He did, not go." — Do, and not dost, 
is used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of the imperative ; as, "Do 
thou love." 

334. Have is used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect tense, and had in the 
pasUperfect* 

Shall and Will — Should and Would. 

335. Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation; and will, present 
inclination, purpose, or volition, from which the futurity of the act, &c, is natu- 
rally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification is lost sight of, and 
they are used simply to denote futurity — still modified, however, in their use, by 
their primary signification. They are usually distinguished as follows :— 

Shall and Will, expressing resolution, purpose, 8fc. 

336. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a person, in refer- 
ence to his men acts ; and shall, his purpose, &c. ? in reference to the acts ofother8 t 



. 



ETYMOLOGY AUXILIARIES. 63 

over whom he has authority or power. As the purpose expressed may be that 
of the speaker, of the person addressed, or of the person spoken of, hence will arise 
the three following forms, viz. : — 

First Form. — Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my purpose 

or intention that — 1 will write — you shall write — he shall w r rite. Or, 

■without a preceding clause : I will write — you shall w rite — he shall write. 

Second Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. It is your 

purpose,. &c, that— I shall write — you will write — he shall write. 
Third Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person spoken of. It is his 
purpose, &c, that — I shall write — you shall write — he (himself) will 
write— he (another) shall write. 
The second and third forms can not be used without a preceding clause. 

337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolution, promise, 
&c, of the subject of the verb. Thus — 

I will go, } C My resolution, &c 

Thou wilt go, \ expresses < Thy resolution, &c. 

He will go, ) ' His resolution, &c. 

338. Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expressed in a more positive 
and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by will, because in this way 
the person, as it were, divests himself of will, and puts himself entirely at the dis- 
posal of another. Thus, a person may say, " I shall go, though much against my 
inclination." 

For this reason, shall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and more offen- 
sive in a threat, than will. 

Interrogatively. 

339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries in this sense are used with reference 
to the will of the second person to whom a question is always supposed to be ad- 
dressed, and hence are used as in the second of the above forms ; thus — 

Shall I write ? Will you write ? Shall he write ? — Equivalent to — 
Is it your purpose that I shall write ? — you will write 1 — he shall write ? 

Shall and Will, expressing futurity, 

340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shall and will is directly the reverse 
of what it is in the expression of resolution : that is, will takes the place of shall, 
and shall takes the place of will. In other words, when a person in reference to 
himself foretells what is future, shall is used ; and in reference to others, will is 
used. Thus — 

First Form. — I think that I shall go — that thou wilt go — that he will go. — 
Or without a preceding clause : I shall go — thou wilt go — he will go. 

Second Form. — You think that I will go — that you shall go — that he will go. 

Third Form. — He thinks that I will go— that you will go — that he (himself) 
shall go — that he (another) will go. 

341. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as pleasing, or repugnant, 
shall is used with reference to the first person, even when others are represented 
as foretelling ; as — 

You seem to think ) . C I shall recover. 

He seems to fear \ (I shall not recover. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Interrogatively respecting the future* 

342. Shall is used interrogatively in the first and the second person, and will in 
the third ; as, " Shall I arrive in time ?"— " Shall you be at home to-morrow ?" — 
" Will your brother be there V 

343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided, though, 
unless. &c. — the adverbs when, while, until, after, before, &c. — and also after who~ 
soever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictive clause (267-2) ; as, " If they shall enter 
into my rest" — " When he shall appear" — " There is nothing covered which shall 
not be revealed" — " Whoever shall put away his wife." 

344. Should, the past tense of shall, and would, the past tense of will, are aux- 
iliaries of the past potential ; and in dependent clauses are used in the same manner 
after a past tense, that shall and will are used after the present or future. Hence, 
in the preceding examples (336 to 348), if the verb in the preceding clause is put 
in past time, should will take the place of shall, and would the place of will, in 
the dependent clause ; thus — 

First Form. — It was my purpose that I would write — you should write — he 

should write. 
So also in the other forms : and when there is no dependence on a preceding 
clause, these words will be used as in the first form. 

May, can, must — might, could — to be* 

345. May denotes present liberty or permission; can, present ability; and must, 
present obligation or necessity. They are used as auxiliaries in the present poten- 
tial, to express these ideas. 

346. May sometimes denotes mere possibility ; as, " He may write, perhaps" — 
" It may rain to-morrow." 

347. May, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a wish or prayer ; 
as, "May you be happy !" 

348. Can, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst ; as, " Thou trees 
and stones can teach." — Davie?. 

349. Might and could express, in past time, the same ideas generally that are 
expressed by may and can in the present. They are used as auxiliaries in the 
past potential. 

350. Might, before the subject, is also used to express a wish ; as, " Might it 
but turn out to be no worse than this !" 

351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, it is used for may ; as, " These things I 
say, that ye might be saved." — John v. 34. 

352. Combined with have, these form a new series of compound auxiliaries ; 
thus, shall have and ivill have are auxiliaries of the future perfect indicative ; may 
have, can have, and must have, of the present perfect potential; and might have, 
Sec, of the past perfect potential. 

353. But though may denotes present liberty, may have does not denote past lib- 
erty, but only the present possibility ; thus, "He may have written," means, It 
is possible that he has written. So also, must have does not denote past necessity, 
but present certainty ; thus, " He must have written," means, There is no doubt he 
has written ; it can not be otheiwise. 

354. The verb " to be," in all its moods and tenses, is used as an auxiliary- in 
forming the passive voice ; as, " I am loved ;" " He was loved," &c. (507). Also in 



ETYMOLOGY AUXCLIARIES. 65 

the progressive form of the active voice ; as, " I am writing;" " He was writing," 
&c. (506). 

355. All these auxiliaries are sometimes used, without their verb, to express, by 
ellipsis, the same thing- as the full form of the verb, together with its adjuncts, 
when that is used immediately before, either in the same or in a different tense; 
thus, " He writes poetry as well as I do ;" " I can write as well as he can ;" " If 
you can not write, I will ;" " He will do that as well as I can ;" " James can get 
his lesson as well as ever I could ;" " He envies me as much as I do him." 

356. The verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the substitute of another 
verb or phrase previously used ; as, "We have not yet found them all, nor ever 
shall do. — Milton. — " Lucretius wrote on the nature of things in Latin, as Emped- 
ocles had already done in Greek." — Acton. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the cor- 
rection : — 

I will be a loser by that bargain. I will be drowned and 
nobody shall help me. I will be punished if I do wrong. 
You shall be punished if you do not reform. It shall proba- 
bly rain to-morrow. If you shall come I shall come also. I 
will be compelled to go home. I am resolved that I shall do 
my duty. I purposed that if you would come home I should 
pay you a visit. I hope that I will see him. I hoped that I 
would see him. You promised that you should write me 
soon. He was of opinion that we should hear a good lec- 
ture. He shall come of his own accord, if encouragement 
will be given. 

2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which are wrong, and 
why :— 

It is thought he shall come. It will be impossible to get 
ready in time. Ye will not come to me. Ye shall have 
your reward. They should not do as they ought. We are 
resolved that we will do our duty. They are resolved that 
they shall do their duty. I am determined that you will do 
your duty. I am sure you will do your duty. 

ANOMALOUS USAGE. 

357. Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in a way 
which it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to explain in a satisfactory 
manner, and which may justly be regarded as anomalous. The fol- 
lowing are a few of these :— 

6* 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

358. Had is sometimes used in poetry for mould; as, " I had rather," " I had as 

lief," for, "I would rather" I would as lief." Sometimes it is used 
for would have; as, "My fortune had [would have] been his." — 
Dry den. Sometimes for might ; as, " Some men had [might] as 
■well be schoolboys, as schoolmasters." 

359. Will is sometimes used to express what is customary at the present time ; 

as, "He will sometimes sit whole hours in the shade;" "He will 
read from morning - till night." 

360. Would, in like manner, is sometimes used to express what was customary 

in past time ; as, " The old man would shake his years away ;" 
"He'd sit him down." 

361. Would is sometimes used as a principal verb, equivalent to the present of 

wish or desire ; as, " When I make a feast, I would my guests 
should praise it — not the cooks." — " When I would [when I wish 
to] do good, evil is present with me." Thus used, the subject 
in the first person is sometimes omitted ; as, " Would God it were 
even,"=" I pray God ;" " Would to God,"=^I pray to God." 

362. Would, with a negative, used in this way, is not merely negative of a wish 

or desire, but implies strong opposition or refusal ; as, " How often 
would I have gathered thy children — but ye would not ;" " Ye 
would none of my reproof." 

363. Should is used in all persons to denote present duty, and should have, to 

denote past duty ; as, "You should write ;" "I should have writ- 
ten ;" " The rich should remember the poor." 

It often denotes merely a supposed future event ; as, " If he should 
promise, he will perform." 

It is sometimes used in an indefinite sense after that ; as, " It is 
surprising that you should say so." 

364. Should and would are sometimes used to express an assertion in a softened 

manner ; thus, instead of saying, " I think him insane" — " It seems to 
be improper,"' it is milder to say, " I should think him insane" — " It 
would seem to be improper." 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

365. To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

OF VOICE. 

366. Voice is a particular form of the verb, which 
shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken of, to the 
action expressed by the verb. 

367. Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active 
and the Passive. 

368. The Active voice represents the subject of the 
verb as acting ; as, " James strikes the table." 



ETYMOLOGY VERB VOICE. 67 

369. The Passive voice represents the subject of the 
verb as acted upon ; as, " The table is struck by James." 

In other words, the verb, in the active voice, expresses the act of 
its subject — in the passive, it expresses the state of its subject, as 
affected by the act. In the active voice, the subject of the verb 
acts — in the passive, it is acted upon. 

370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the active, or the 
passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in some cases in the present tense 
(509). There is the same act, the same actor, and the same object acted upon. 
The difference is only in the form of expression. By the active voice, we repre- 
sent the subject as acting ; by the passive, as acted upon. In the active voice, the 
actor in the nominative case is the subject of the verb (760) ; in the passive, the. 
actor is in the objective case after a preposition (818). In the active voice, the 
object acted upon is in the objective case, governed by the verb (801) ; in the pas- 
sive, the object is in the nominative case, as the subject of the verb. 

371. It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the person or thing 
doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, by means of the two voices, 
express the fact in two different ways ; thus, " God created the world ;" or, " The 
world was created by God." Also — 

372. When the active voice is used, we may sometimes omit the object ; thus, we 
can say, " John reads," without saying what he reads (323) ; and when the passive 
is used, we may omit the agent or actor ; thus, we can say, " The letter is written.' 1 
without stating by whom. 

373. Hence arises the following advantages from these two forms of expres- 
sion: — 

1. We can, by the form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the actor, or to 
that which is acted upon — to the former, by using the active voice — " God created 
the world" — to the latter, by using the passive — " The world was created by 
God." 

2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when -we either do 
not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom the act was done. 
Thus we can say, " The glass is broken," though we do not know who broke it, 
or if we know, do not wish to tell. 

3. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice of expression, 
and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most perspicuous, conve- 
nient, or elegant. 

374. Intransitive verbs can have no distinction of voice, because 
they have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive. 
Their form is generally active; as, "I stand ;" "I run.'' 1 A few- 
are used also in the passive form, but with the same sense as in the 
active; as, " He is come;" " They are gone;" equivalent to, " He 
has come ;" " They have gone." 

375. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and so 
capable of a passive form — 

1. By the addition of another word ; thus, " I laugh" is intransi- 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tive ; "I laugh at (him)" is transitive ; passive, " He is laughed at 

(by me)." 

In parsing such examples, however, it is generally better in the active voice, to 
parse the words separately — laugh, as an intransitive verb, and at as a preposition, 
followed by its object ; but, in the passive voice, they must be parsed together as 
one word — a transitive verb, in the passive voice. 

2. Intransitive verbs are transitive, when followed by a noun of 
similar signification as an object ; as, intransitive, " I run ;" transi- 
tive, " I run a race ;" passive, " A race is run by me." 

3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a causative 
sense ; that is, when they denote the causing of that act or state which 
the verb properly expresses ; as, " Walk your horse round the yard.' 

• — " The proprietors run a stage-coach daily." Passively, "Your 
horse was walked [made to walk] round the yard" — "A stage-coach 
is run [made to run] daily by the proprietors." Intransitive verbs, 
used in this way, are called Causatives. 

4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English, are used 
in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which the passive will not always 
be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field ploughs well" — " These lines 
read smoothly" — " This fruit tastes bitter" — " Linen wears better than cotton." 
The idea here expressed is quite different from that expressed by the passive 
form : " This field is well ploughed" — " These lines are smoothly read" Some- 
times, however, the same idea is expressed by both forms ; thus, " Wheat sells 
readily," or " is sold readily at an advanced price." (Expressions of this kind are 
usually made in French by the reflected verb ; thus, " Ce champ se laboure bien," 
— " Ces lignes se lisent aisement.") When used in this sense, they may properly 
be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are never followed by an objective case. 



MOODS. 



376. Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the sig- 
nification of the verb. 

377. The moods in English are jive ; namely, the In- 
dicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

378. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed 
by the verb, simply and without limitation; as, " He is" 
— " He loves" — " He is loved." 

379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to its subject 
the act, being, or state, expressed by the verb, simply and without 
limitation. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB MOODS. 



69 



380. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the liberty, 
po we?', iv ill, or obligation, of the subject with respect to it; 
as, " The wind may blow'''' — " We ?nay walk" — " I can 
swim" — " He would not stay" — " Children should obey 
their parents." 

In other words, the potential mood expresses, not what the subject 
does, or is, &c., but what it may, can, must, might, could, would, or 
should do or be, &c. 

381. The auxiliaries may, can, &c , in the potential mood, in all probability, 
were at first independent verbs in the indicative, followed by the verb in the infini- 
tive, without the sign to before it, as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear t 
feel, let, <fcc. (877). Grammarians now generally combine them as one word, con- 
stituting a particular form of the verb, to which they have given the name of 
potential mood, from its leading use. The indicative and potential both declare, 
but they declare different things : the former declares what the subject does, or is; 
the latter what it mayor can, &c, do or be. The declaration made by the indicative 
is simple ; that made by the potential is always complex, containing the idea of 
liberty, power, &c, in connexion with the act. " He writes" is the indicative of 
the verb to write. " He can write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the 
infinitive of to write; or, combined, the potential of the verb to write. 

382. Both the indicative and the potential mood are used interrogatively ; as, 
u Does he love V — " Can he write ?" They are also used without dependence on 
another verb, and express a complete idea in themselves. "James writes a 
letter," and "James can write a letter," are equally complete and independent 
sentences. 

333. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, de- 
sirable, or contingent; as, " If he study, he will improve." 
— " O that thou wert as my brother !" 

384. This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and dependent on, 
another verb expressed or understood. " If he study, he will improve." — " O [I 
wish] that thou wert," &c. 

385. The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the present 
tense only ; in the verb to be. in the present and past. 

386. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, 
are used subjunctively ; that is, they are used to express what is conditional, or 
contingent, and with dependence on another verb ; as, " If he sleeps, he will do 
well" — '' He would go if he could" (go). 

387. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood, which has the 
subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used subjunctively, it 
should be so stated. 

388. The conditionality or contingency, &c, expressed by this mood, is usually 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

intimated by such conjunctions as if, though, lest, unless, so, &c, prefixed, which, 
however, make no part of the verb. 

389. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction, by merely 
putting 1 the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative ; as, " Had 1," for 
"If I had" — " Were he," for " If he were"— 11 Had he gone" for l 'Ifhe had gone," 
— " Would he but reform," for " If he would but reform," &c. 

390. Most grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an abbreviated 
form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that the supplement may al- 
ways be made ; thus, '• If he study," &c.,that is, if he shall (or should) study," &c. 
" Though he [should] come," &c. This view is plausible, and may apply to the 
present tense of the subjunctive in most cases ; but it will not apply to the past sub- 
junctive of the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we 
might say, " If I should be," for " If I be," yet we can not say, " If I should weie;" 
and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form seems to be indis- 
pensable ; as, " See thou do it not" — " If he do but try, he will succeed:" still — 

391. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling greatly into dis- 
use. The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to use the indicative or poten- 
tial in its stead, wherever it can be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form 
is used only when it has a future reference ; as, " If he come [viz., at a future time], 
he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by saying, " If he comes" (406), 
" If he shall come" — or " If he should come" — and one or other of these expressions 
is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of supposition, 
the present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future reference or not ; as 
" Though God he high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, 
according to present usage, the present indicative would be used ; thus, " Though 
God is high," &c 

392. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, entreats, 
or yermits; as, " Do this" — " Remember thy Creator" — 
" Hear, O my people" — " Go thy way for this time" (596). 

393. The Infinitive mood expresses the meaning of 
the verb in a general manner, without any distinction of 
person or number; as, to love. 

394. The infinitive is often used as a verbal noun in the nominative 
case, as the subject of a verb ; as, " To play is pleasant." Or, in 
the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, 
or of a preposition ; as, " Boys love to play" — u He is about to go," 
— " What went ye out for to see V 

395. The infinitive mood generally has no subject; yet the act, being, or state, 
expressed by it, is referable to some word connected with it. Thus, in the above 
examples, to play is referable to boys ; to go is the act of he, &c. — (App. to 314.) 

396. But when the infinitive as a subject has its own subject, it is in the objec- 
tive case, introduced by for ; as, " For us to lie, is base." But when the infinitive 
with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, that subject in the objective case 
needs no connecting word ; as, " We believe him to be sincere." Here, him is the 



ETYMOLOGY VERB TENSES. 71 

subject of to be, and the whole clause " him to be sincere" = " that he is sincere," 
is the object of belief (872). 

397. The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other languages, is 
sometimes used in a passive sense; as. "You are to blame" (to be blamed)— "A 
house to let" — " A road to make" — " Goods made to sell" — " Knives to grind" &c, 



TENSES, 

398. Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which serve 
to point out the distinctions of time. 

399. Time is naturally divided into the past, the present, and the future. The 
past includes all that goes before the present; the future includes all that comes 
after the present ; and the present, strictly speaking, is the point in which the past 
and future meet, and which has, itself, no space or continuance. In grammar, 
however, the present is not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a 
greater or less period of which the passing instant forms a part ; as, this moment, 
hour, day, week, &c. In each of these, an act, &c, may be expressed, either sim- 
ply and indefinitely as present, or definitely as completed ; and these are expressed 
by different forms of the verb called tenses. Hence— 

400. The tenses in English are six — the Present, the 
Present-perfect,- the Past, the Past-perfect, the Future, and 
the Future-perfect. 

401. Of these, the present and the past only, in the indicative mood, and the 
present in the subjunctive, are simple tenses, consisting of the verb only ; as, " I 
love" — " I loved." All the rest are compound, consisting of the auxiliary and the 
verb ; as, " I have loved." 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

402. The Present tense expresses what takes place in 
present time ; as, " I love 11 — " I am loved. 11 

403. This tense is used also to express what is habitual, or always true ; as, " He 
goes to church" — " Virtue is its own reward" — " Vice produces misery." 

404. It is used, in animated narration, to express past events with force and inter- 
est, as if they were present ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and 
enters Italy." 

405. It is used sometimes, instead of the-present perfect tense, in speaking of 
authors long since dead, when reference is made to their works which still exist; 
as, " Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abraham" — " Virgil imitates 
Homer :" instead of u has told," " has imitated." 

406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before, if, as soon 
as, after, till, and also after relative pronouns, to express the relative time of a 
future action, that is, of an action future at the time of speaking, but which will be 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



present at the time referred to ; as, a When he comes, he will be welcome" — " We 
shall get our letters as soon as the post arrives"—" He will kill every one [whom] 
he meets," &c. 

" No longer mourn for me. when 1 am dead." — Shaks. 

407. The Present-perfect tense represents an ac- 
tion or event as perfect or completed in present time, ex- 
pressed or implied;that is, in a period of which the present 
forms a part ; as, " I have walked six miles to-day" — "John 
has bent busy this week"— u Many good books have been 
published this century." 

408. The sign of the present-perfect is have — inflected, hast, has, or hath. 

409. In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act referred to may 
have been performed, if it was in a period reaching to and embracing the present, 
or a part of which is not yet past ; as, " Many discoveries in the arts have been made 
since the days of Bacon" (that is, in the period reaching from that time to the pres- 
ent). On the other hand, if the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not 
include the present, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. 
Thus, we can not properly say, " I have seen your friend a moment ago ;" but, "I 
saw your friend," &c. 

410. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through a period of 
time reaching to the present; as, "He has studied grammar six months" — "He 
has been absent [now] six years." 

411 Tt is used to express acts long since completed, when the reference is 
not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and still existing ; as, " Cicero has 
toritten orations" — "Moses has told us many important facts in his writings" — 
" Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work 
of thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is 
to the act of finishing, and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this 
tense can not be used ; thus, we can not say, " Cicero has written poems," because 
no such productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God has created the 
heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a certain past time indi- 
cated by the words " In the beginning." 

412. It is ufed in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the future- 
perfect, to represent an action, Sec, as perfect at a future time ; as, " The cock shall 
not crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." 

413. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present existence of that 
of which the verb expresses the completion • as, " I have been young" — meaning, 
this is now finished — I am young no more. 

414. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite. 

415. The Past tense expresses what took place in past 
time, expressed or implied ; as, " In the beginning, God cre- 
ated the heavens."— " God said, Let there be light."— " The 
ship sailed when the mail arrived." 



ETWUOLOGY VERB TENSES. 73 

416. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and, however 
near to the present, it does not embrace it : as, •* I saw your friend a moment ago"— 
41 I wrote yesterday." 

417. In such expressions as w 1 wrote this morning" — " this tvee^ — " this year" 
&c, the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in these yet unfinished 
periods. 

418. This tense is used to express what, was customary in past time ; as, " She 
attended church regularly all her life,'' 

419. The Past-perfect tense represents an action or 
state as perfect or finished at or before a certain past time* 
expressed or implied ; as, " I had walked six miles that 
day" — " John had been busy that week*'-— u The ship had 
sailed when the mail arrived"— -that is, the ship sailed be- 
fore the mail arrived. 

420. The sign of the past- perfect is had ; second person, hadst. This tense cor- 
responds to the Latin pluperfect. 

421. The Future tense expresses what will take place 
in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and your hearts 
shall rejoice" 

422. The signs of the future are shall, ivilL 

423. The Future-perfect tense represents an action 
or state as perfect or finished at a certain time yet future ; 
as, " I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock." — " He 
will have finished his letter before you are ready." 

424. The signs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have. 

TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 

425. The Potential mood has four tenses — the Present* 
the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect. 

426. The Present potential expresses present liberty, power, or 
obligation. 

427. The signs of the Present are, may, can, must. 

428. The Present-perfect in this mood, does not correspond in 
meaning to the same tense in the indicative, but more properly 
expresses present possibility, liberty, necessity, &c, with respect 
to an act or state supposed to be past ; thus, " He may have written," 
means, It is possible that he wrote, or has written ; " He must have 
written," means, It must be that he wrote or has written. 

429. The signs of the Present-perfect potential are, may have, can have, must hava, 

7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

430. The Past potential is very indefinite with respect to time, 
being used to express liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, sometimes 
with regard to what is past, sometimes with regard to what is pres- 
ent, and sometimes with regard to what is future ; thus, 

Past — " He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged." 
Present — " I would do it with pleasure now, if I could" 
Future — kk If he woidd delay his journey a few days, I might 
[could, would, or should] accompany him." 

431. The signs of the Past potential are, viight, covld, would, should. 

432. The Past-perfect potential, also, never corresponds in time to 
the past-perfect indicative ; that is, it never represents an act, &c, 
as completed at a certain past time, but expresses the liberty, ability, 
purpose, or duty, with respect to the act or state expressed by the 
verb, as now past; thus, " He could have written," means, He was 
able to write. 

433. The signs of the Past- perfect potential are, might have, could have, would 
have, should have. 

434. The Future and Future-perfect are wanting in the Potential. 

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

435. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has only the 
Present tense. The verb " to be" has the present and the past. 
The indicative mood used subjunctively (386), furnishes what may 
be called a second form of the present subjunctive, and the only form 
of the other subjunctive tenses. 

436. The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, according to 
present approved usage, has always a future reference ; that is, it 
denotes a present uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed 
future action or event ; thus, " If he write," is equivalent to, " If he 
should write," or, "If he shall write."* 

437. Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present 



* From this usage, some grammarians regard this as an elliptical form of the 
future, or of the past potential, in a future sense, the signs shall or should being 
omitted ; and some have given it as a future, in the conjugation of the verb. How- 
ever plausible this may appear, from the present prevailing usage, there can be no 
doubt that this, so-called, elliptical future was formerly considered, and is even still 
used, as a present subjunctive. It is often used when the time is manifestly pres- 
ent, and in such a way that neither shall, nor should, nor any similar term, can be 
supplied without changing the sense ; and where the present usage would require 
the present indicative ; thus, " Though the Lord be [is] high," &c. — Ps. cxxxviii. 
6.—" If thou be [art] the Son of God."— Matth. iv. 3, 6.— i' That which thou sowest 
is not quickened except it die [dies]." — 1 Cor. xv. 36. — " Whether he be [is] a sin- 
ner or not, I know not." — John ix. 25, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY— VERB— TENSES. 76 

action or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjunc- 
tively ; as, * 4 If he writes as well as he reads, he will succeed.*' 

438. The Present-perfect subjunctive is only the same tense 
of the indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as, "If she 
have brought up children," &c. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete. 

439. The Past subjunctive is used in two senses — 

1. It is used to express a. past action or state as conditional or con- 
tingent ; as, " If he wrote that letter he deserves credit, and should 
be rewarded ;" "If he was at home, I did not know it." 

2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something present, 
and implies a denial of the thing supposed ; as, " If I had the 
money now, I would pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this 
way, the verb " to 6e" (and of course the passive voice of transitive 
verbs) has a separate form in the singular, but not in the plural, viz. : 
I were, thou wert, he were; for I was, thou wast, he was : thus, " If 
my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight," 
implying, It is not of this world ; " O that thou wert as my brother," 
implying, that thou art not. 

440. In this way the Past subjunctive seems to be always used when the con- 
junctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is placed before its nominative 
(389) ; as. " Hadst thou been here,, my brother had not [would not have (358)] died." 

441. When a supposition, &c, respecting something - past is expressed in this 
way, the Past-perfect must be used ; as, " If I had had the money yesterday, I 
would have paid it," implying, I had it not; "0 that thou hadkt been as my 
brother,'' implying, that thou wast not. 

442. Though the past tense, used in this way, refers to a present act or state, yet 
as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be called the past tense. 

TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
443. The Imperative mood has only the present tense, and that 
has respect to the time of the command, exhortation, &c. The 
doing of the thing commanded must, of course, be posterior to the 
command requiring it. 

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

444. The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the Present 
and the Perfect.* These do not so properly denote the 
time of the action, &c, as its state (446 and 449) ; as, 
" To write" — " To have written." 

* The word present is omitted before perfect, in designating this tense in the 
infinitive and participles, because the reference in these Is only to the state of the 
act. &c., and not particularly to the present time (455). 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

445. In the other moods, the time expressed by the tenses is estimated from the 
time of speaking, which is always regarded as present ; as, " I wrote" (that is, in 
a time now past), "I write" (that is, in time now present). "I shall write" (that is, 
in time now future). But the infinitive represents the action or state expressed as 
present, not, however, always at the time of speaking, but at the time indicated by 
the preceding verb, or some other word in the sentence ; as, " He wishes to write" 
■ — now — to-morrow — next week, &c. ; " He wished to write" — then (viz., at the 
time of wishing, now past)— next day — this day— to-morrow, &c. ; " He will wish 
to write" — then (viz.. at the time of wishing, now future)- — next day, &c. Hence 
the following definitions : — 

446. The Present infinitive expresses an act or state not finished, 
indefinitely, or at any time referred to, expressed or implied ; as, "I 
wish to write'*' — " I wished to go"- — " Apt to teach. 11 

447. The sign of the present infinitive is, to. 

448. After the verb to be, the present infinitive is sometimes used to express a 
future action or event ; as, " He is to go ;" " If we were to go," &c. (876-3.) 

449. The Perfect infinitive expresses an act or state as perfect or 
finished, at any time referred to, expressed or implied ; as, " He is 
said to have written'' 1 — already — yesterday — a year ago, &c. 

450. The sign of the perfect infinitive is, to have. 

451. In the use of the infinitive it is necessary to observe, that the Present must 
never be used in circumstances which imply a finished act ; nor the Perfect in cir- 
cumstances which imply an act not finished. Thus, it is improper to say, " He is 
said to write yesterday," because the language leads to regard the act as finished, 
since it took place in past time. Nor can we say, " I hoped — I desired — I intend- 
ed, &c. — to have written yesterday," because an act regarded as perfect or finished* 
the doing of which, of course, is past, can not be the object of hope, desire, inten- 
tion, &c. 



PARTICIPLES. 

452. A Participle is a word which, as a verb, ex- 
presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a 
noun ; as, " He came seeing" — " Having finished our task, 
we may play." 

453. Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the verb, and partly 
to the adjective. From the former, they have signification, voice, and tense; and 
they perform the office of the latter. 

454. Verbs have three participles — the present, the past, 
and the perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved, in the 
active voice ; and being loved, loved, having been loved, in 
the passive. 



ETYMOLOGY PARTICIPLES. 77 

455. The participles, like the infinitive, do not so properly denote the time of an 
action, as its stale ; while the time of the act, whether progressive or finished, is 
indicated by the verb with which it is connected, or by some other word ; thus, " I 
saw him writing- yesterday ;" " I see him writing now ;" " I will see him writing 
to-morrow." In all these examples, writing expresses an act present, and still in 
progress at the time referred to ; but with respect to the time of speaking, the act 
of writing, expressed in the first example, is past, in the second it is present, and in 
the third it is future, as indicated by the accompanying verbs, saw, see, will see. 

456. The present active participle ends always in ing. In all 
verbs it has an active signification, and denotes an action or state as 
continuing and progressive ; as, " James is building a house." In 
some verbs, it has also a passive progressive signification ; as, " The 
house is building." 

457. This usage some suppose has its origin in the use of the verbal noun 
after in, to express the same idea; thus, "Forty and six years was this temple 
in building ;" "And the house when it was in building was built of stone 
made ready — so that there was neither hammer nor axe heard in the house, 
while it was in building." In the absence of emphasis, the in being indis- 
tinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a; as, 
" While the ark was a preparing" (1 Pet. iii. 20), and finally to be omitted alto- 
gether. Similar changes of prepositions we have in the expressions, a going, 
a running, a hunting, a fishing, &c. Others, again, suppose that this ought to 
be regarded as an original idiom of the language, similar to the passive use of 
the infinitive active noticed before (397). But whether either of these is the true 
account of this matter or not, the fact is certain. It is therefore the duty of the 
grammarian to note the fact, though he may be unable to account for it. The fol- 
lowing are examples: "This new tragedy was acting" — E. Everett. "An 
attempt was making." — D. Webster. ** The fortress was building," &c— - 
Irving. 

458. The Present participle passive has always a passive signifi- 
cation, but it has the same difference of meaning with respect to the 
time or state of the action as the present indicative passive (509). 

459. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In the active voice 
it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has always an active 
sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present-perfect and Pkst-perfect tenses — 
and is never found but thus combined ; as, " has loved," " had loved," &c. In the 
passive voice it has always a passive sense, and, with the verb to be as an auxil- 
iary, forms the passive voice ; as, " He is loved ;" or without it, qualifies a noun or 
pronoun ; as, " A man loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the 
active and the passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz. : 
Active — "He has concealed a dagger under his cloak;" Passive — "He has a 
dagger concealed under his cloak." 

460. The Perfect participle is always compound, and represents an action or 
state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an active sense in the 
active voice, and a passive sense in the passive ; as, Active : " Having finished 
our task, we may play." Passive : " Our task having been finished, we may 
play." 

7 # 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

461. The Present participle active, and the Past participle pas- 
sive, when separated from the idea of time, become adjectives, and 
are usually called participial adjectives ; as, " An amusing story" — 
"A hound book" (202-4). 

462. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun (107-3), 
having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive. In 
this character, the participle of a transitive verb may still retain the 
government of the verb ; as, " In keeping his commandments there 
is a great reward :" or, it may be divested of it by inserting the prep- 
osition of after it ; as, " In the keeping of his commandments." When 
of follows the participle, the should precede it (899). 

463. So also the Perfect participle ; as, " There is satisfaction in having done 
well"—" His having done his duty, was afterward a source of satisfaction." 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 

464. Every tense of the verb has two Numbers, the Singular and 
the Plural, corresponding to the singular and plural of nouns and 
pronouns. The singular asserts of one, the plural of more than 
one. 

465. In each number, the verb has three Persons, called the first, 
second, and third. The first asserts of the person speaking ; the 
second of the person spoken to ; and the third of the person or thing 
spoken of 

466. The subject of the verb, in the first person singular, is always 
I; in the plural, we : in the second person singular, thou ; in the 
plural, ye or you : in the third person, the subject is the name of any 
person or thing spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in its 
stead ; also it may be an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, or 
any thing of which a person can think or speak. 

467. In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the sec- 
ond person, because a command, exhortation, &c, can be addressed 
only to the person spoken to. 

468. In such expressions as "Let us love''' — " Let him love" — "Let them love" — 
phrases by which the first and the third person of the imperative in some lan- 
guages are rendered — let is the proper imperative, in the second person, with 
thou or ye as its subject understood, and love the infinitive without the sign 
(877). Thus, " Let [thou] us love," &c. 

469. This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no definite indi- 
vidual is addressed ; as, " Let there be light." 

470. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a. first and a third person 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 79 

in the imperative ; as, " Confide we in ourselves alone" — u With virtue be we 
armed." — Hunt's Tasso. " And rest we here, Matilda said." — Scott. 

"Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm, 
And live the rest secure from future harm." — Pope. 

"Laugh those that can, weep those that may." — Scott. 

471. Such expressions as *« Hallowed be thy name" — " Thy kingdom come," 
— " Be it enacted" — " So be it," &c., may be regarded either as examples of 
the third person in the imperative, or as elliptical for "May" or "Let thy name 
be hallowed" — " Let it be enacted" — " Let it be so," &c. 

472. The infinitive, because it usually has no subject (872), has neither number 
nor person. 



CONJUGATION. 

473. The conjugation of a verb is the regular combi- 
nation and arrangement of its several voices, moods, tenses, 
numbers, and persons. 

474. In the active voice, verbs have two forms — the Common, and 
the Progressive : — - 

1. The Common form expresses the simple existence of the fact; 

as, " He speaks" — " She writes" — " They talk." 

2. The Progressive form represents an action as begun, and in 

progress, but not completed. It is formed by annexing the 
present participle to the verb " to be," through all its moods 
and tenses; as, "I am writing" &c. (506). 

475. Besides these in the present and the past indicative, there is a third form, 
called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with emphasis or force. It is formed 
by prefixing, to the verb the auxiliary do, in the present tense, and did, in the past; 
as, " I do write" — " I did write." The other tenses, and also the progressive form 
and passive voice, are rendered emphatic, by placing emphasis on the auxiliary; 
as, " I have written" — " I am writing" — " The letter is written." 

476. To these may be added, the solemn form of the third person singular, pres- 
ent indicative, ending in th, or eth, and the common, ending in s or es. Thus — 
solemn form, lovelh, hath loved ; common, loves, has loved. 

477. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an auxiliary, are 
called Simple tenses, those inflected with an auxiliary are called 
Compound tenses. 

478. The only regular terminations added to verbs are— 

1. The tense endings : ed of the past tense ; and ing of the pres- 

ent participle. 

2. The personal endings : st, or est, of the second person singular ; 

and s, es, or eth, of the third. The other changes are made 
by auxiliaries. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

479. In the present and the past tense, when *st will easily coalesce with the final 
consonant, it is added in the same syllable ; as, saidst, lovedst. But when it will 
not easily coalesce, or the verb ends in a vowel sound, est is commonly added, and 
forms another syllable : as, wishest, teachest, lovest, goest, drawest, safest, vexest, 
blessest, &c. 

480. In the present indicative, the endings of the third person singular, s and es, 
are subject to the rules for the plural number of nouns (137-142) ; as, sits, reads, 
wishes, teaches, loves, goes, draws, carries, says, &c. 

481. In the solemn style, instead of s or es, the third person singular has eth, 
which always adds a syllable, except in doth for doeth, and hath for haveth. 

482. The verb need is often used in the third person singular of the present 
tense, without the personal ending ; as, " The truth need not be disguised" — " It 
need not be added." 

483. In annexing the tense and personal endings to the verb, the Rules III., IV., 
and VII., for spelling words (57, 60, 68), must be carefully observed. 

484. In the present indicative active, the three persons in the plural, and the 
first in the singular, are alike. In the past tense, the three persons in the plural, 
and the first and third in the singular, are all alike, except in the verb " to be" in 
which the form in the singular is different from that of the plural ; thus, singular, 
was, wast, was — plural, were. 

485. The principal parts of the verb are the Present in- 
dicative, the Past indicative, and the Past participle. The 
mentioning of these parts is called conjugating the verb. 
Thus :— 

Present. Past. Past participle. 

Regular (326), Love, loved, loved. 

Irregular (327), Write, wrote, written. 

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB, " TO BE." 

486. The irregular and intransitive verb " to he" is used as a 
principal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and in 
the progressive form of the active voice. It is thus inflected through 
all its moods and tenses : — * 

* The arrangement and names of the tenses here adopted were given in the first 
edition of the " Principles of English Grammar," published fifteen years ago; but 
this was then objected to as too violent a change, and was subsequently altered. 
Since that time a change has taken place in the public mind on this subject, and 
several grammarians have adopted the change then proposed; it is, therefore, 
here resumed, being considered as altogether the best. The past tense in English 
does not correspond to the imperfect in Latin or Greek, but rather to the Greek 
Aorist. There is, therefore, no propriety in retaining the name imperfect. The 
Latin imperfect corresponds precisely to the past-progressive in English (506). 
So also, the present -perfect does not correspond precisely to the Lstin perfect, as 
that is used in an indefinite sense, like the Greek Aorist, and also in a definite 
sense, like the English present-perfect. The past-perfect corresponds to the plu- 
perfect in Latin. The future and the future-perfect in English correspond to the 
tense* of the same name in Latin. — See Latin Grammar, §44. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 



81 



Present, am. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Past, was. Past participle, been. 



Singular. 

1. I am.* 

2. Thou art (244). 

3. He is. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You are (245). 

3. They are. 



PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 



1. I have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 

3. He has been. 

1. I was. 

2. Thou wast. 

3. He was. 



Sign, have. 

1. We have been. 

2. You have been. 

3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. We were. 

2. You were. 

3. They were. 



PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, had. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall will. Inflect with each, 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFEC V TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 



* Be and beest were formerly used in the present indicative ; as. " We be true 
men" — Bible — for, We are true men. — " If thou be'isl he." — Milton. — " There be 
as many miseries beyond riches as on this side of them." — Walton. This usage 
is now obsolete. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have, * or must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. 1 might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Iff I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

* Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. 

t The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, Sec, do not form part of the subjunc- 
tive mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388). 
The pupil may go over the indicative, as a subjunctive, with one or other of these 
conjunctions prefixed. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 83 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you. 

INFIxVITIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE* 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being. Past, Been. Perfect, Having been. 

487. All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the potential 
mood, are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunction before 
them, thus: Present — "If I am," "If thou art," "If he is," &c. 
(386). Present-perfect— "If I have been," &c. Past— "If I 
was,' 1 &c. 

488. The verb to be, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular future tense, 
which often expresses duty, necessity, or purpose ; as, " Government is to be sup- 
ported." — " We are to pay our debts." — * If we were to depend on others" = " If 
we should depend," &c. (876-3). 

489. This verb has no progressive form. The emphatic form is used only in the 
imperative ; as, " Do thou be" — "Do you be." 

Anomalous Usage. 

490. Were is sometimes used for would be* and had been for would have been; 
as, " This were excellent advice." — Cowley. "It were a folly." — Sidney. " My 
fortune had been his," for would have been (358), — Dry den. 

• 

PARSING. 

491. A verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive or 
intransitive), its form (regular or irregular), conjugating it 
if irregular* (485), and stating its tense, mood, voice, person, 
and number, and also the subject of which it affirms ; thus : 

" He is." — Is is a verb, intransitive, irregular — am, was, been — found in the 
present, indicative, active — third person, singular, and affirms of its subject, he. 

492. Besides stating the several properties of the verb, as above, the teacher 
may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exercise, to assign a rea- 
son for each statement ; thus : — 

Is — a verb, because it affirms being or existence of " He." 
intransitive — it has no object 
irregular — Its past tense and past participle do not end in ed—am^was, been. 

* In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular; 
and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be regular sufficiently ascer- 
tains its principal parts. All irregular verbs should be conjugated as in 512. Br- 
ery teacher, however, will adopt the course which he prefers. 



84 ENGLISH GKAMMAH* 

present — it refers to present time. 

indicative — it declares simply, and without limitation, 

active — its subject is not acted upon. 

third person — its subject is spoken of. 

singular — it asserts of but one, ' 4 He." 
As this process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often be em- 
ployed, and is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with it, and prompt in assign- 
ing the reasons as above 

SENTENCES. 
493. Nominative. 

1. A sentence is an affirmation, and must contain a verb, in the indicative, po- 
tential, or subjunctive mood, by which the affirmation is made ; and a subject of 
which the verb affirms. This subject is generally a noun or pronoun, and is always 
in the nominative case ; thus, the sentence, " God is good," contains an affirmation. 
The verb is affirms of the noun God, which is of course its subject, and in the nom- 
inative case. 

2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain a command, 
exhortation, &c. The subject is that to which the command is given. 

3. The subject of a verb, except in the infinitive mood, is always in the nomina- 
tive case. 

4. When that which is affirmed of a subject in the nominative case, is something 
expressed by a noun or pronoun after the verb to be, that noun or pronoun is always 
in the nominative case, and called the predicate-nominative, or nominative after 
the verb ; as, " Socrates was a, philosopher." Here philosopher is in the predicate- 
aaominative, and expresses what was affirms of its subject Socrates. 

EXERCISES. 

1. State the tense, mood, person, and number, of the verb "Lo be" in the follow- 
ing examples; thus, "Am" present, indicative, active, first person singular. 

2. Parse all the words. Thus, " Am," a verb, intransitive, irregular — am, was, 
been—in the present, indicative, active, first person singular : — 

Am ; is ; art ; I was ; we were ; they are ; you have been ; 
she had been ; he was ; we will be ; they shall be ; we had 
been ; hast been ; hadst been ; wast. 

We may be; they may have been; he might be; you 
might have been ; you must be ; they should have been ; if 
I be ; thou wert ; though he were ; if I had been ; though I 
were ; if we could have been ; they might be. 

Be ; to be ; do thou be ; be ye ; to have been ; being ; 
been ; having been ; be thou. 

3. In the following sentences, parse the words in order ; thus, " Snow" (182) is 
a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of is — " is," a verb intransi- 
tive, irregular — am, was, been — in the present indicative, active, third person singu- 
lar, and affirms of snow, " White" is an adjective, positive degree, and qualifies 



ET YMOLOGY VE RB CONJUGATION. 85 

s/iow. " Man" is a noun, masculine, in the nominative, singular, and as a predicate 
expresses what is affirmed of Solomon — or, is the predicate-nominative after was. 

Snow is white. Solomon was a wise man. Time is pre- 
cious. Truth is powerful. Falsehood is base. Alexander 
was a great conqueror. You should be diligent. The tele- 
graph is a useful invention. If you be attentive, you will be 
a good scholar. If they had been diligent, they would have 
been wiser. Be careful. Honesty is the best policy. "Wis- 
dom is the principal thing." — " Counsel is mine, I am under- 
standing." 

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB 

494. The regular transitive verb " To love 11 is inflected 
through all its moods and tenses as follows : — 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle, loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE.* 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. ■ 2. You love. 

3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign,, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 

* EMPHATIC FORMS. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I do love. 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 
3 He does or doth love. 3. They do love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



86 ENGLISH &RAMMAIL 







PAST TENSE. 


L 
3. 


I loved. 

Thou lovedst* 
He loved. 


1. We loved* 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved* 




PAST-PERFECT TENSE* 


1. 
3. 


I had loved. 
Thou hadst loved. 
He had loved. 


Sign, had. 

1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. 

3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 

3c 


Signs, 
I shall love. 
Thou shalt love* 
He shall love. 


shall, will, — Inflect with each* 

1. We shall love. 

2. You shall love. 

3. They shall love. 



FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have y will have.-— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. I. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 
3* He shall have loved* 3. They shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou may st love. 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love* 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may have, can have* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might) could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

# Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 87 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
8igns, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 





SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD (487). 




PRESENT 


TENSE (435). 


Singular, 






Plural 


1. If I love. 






1. If we love. 


2. If thou love. 






2. If you love. 


3. If he love. 






3. If they love, 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, to love. Perfect, to have loved, 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, loving. Past, loved. Perfect, having loved. 

(495.) PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus: — 

When you say, "John loves learning-," which word expresses what John does? 
What part of speech are words which express the act of a person or thing (314) ? 
Then what part of speech is loves ? Why ? 

Whose act does loves express ? Then what is John to the verb loves (315) ? 
Then John is the subject of loves. 

What is it said that John loves ? Learning. What does John do to learning? 
What kind of verbs express what one person or thing does to another (317) ? Is 
loveSy then, transitive or intransitive ? Transitive. 

Conjugate love (485). What is its past tense ? — its past participle? In what 
do they end ? What kind of verbs have the past tense and past participle ending 
in ed (326) ? Then is love regular or irregular ? Regular — conjugated, love, loved, 
loved. 

(Do all verbs form the past tense and past participle by adding ed? Let us try. 
Is it right to say, "I go" ? Would you say, " I goed to church yesterday" ? What 
would you say ? W T hat are those verbs called which do not add ed to form the 
past tense and past participle (327) ? Then is '• go" regular or irregular ? Why ?) 

When you say, " John loves learning," does loves express a present, a past, or 
a future act ? When a verb expresses a present act, in what tense is it (402) ? In 
what tense, then, is loves ? Present. Why ? 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(What would you say, to express the same act as past ?— as future ? Then what 
tense is loved ? — will love 1 ) 

When you say, " John loves learning/' do you declare a fact simply, or with any 
limitation ? What mood declares an act simply (378) ? Then what mood is loves ? 
Indicative. 

In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is it acted upon? What voice 
represents the subject as acting (368) ? Then what voice is loves ? 

Is John represented here as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of? What person 
represents the subject as spoken of (465) ? Then what person is loves ? Third 
person. 

Does loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one ? What number 
asserts of one (464) ? Then what number is loves ? Singular. 

496. The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order thus : "Loves"— 
a verb, transitive, regular, conjugated love, loved, loved — found in the present in- 
dicative, active, third person, lingular, and expresses the act of "John." This is 
called parsing, in which the same order of statement should always be observed. 

497. This may be extended, by giving the reasons of each statement, as follows: 
" Loves" — a verb, because it expresses an act of its subject (314). 

transitive, because it has an object — learning (320-1). 

regular, because its past tense and past participle end in ed (326). 

conjugated, love, loved, loved (485). 

present — it expresses what John does now (402). 

indicative — it expresses the act simply (378). 

active — it represents its subject as acting (368). 

third person — its subject is spoken of (465). 

singular — it asserts of only one (464). 

EXERCISE I. 

Inflect the following irregular verbs in the same manner as the verb " to love" :— 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Go went gone 

Write wrote written 

Do did done 

Fall fell fallen 

Give gave given 

Have had had 

EXERCISE II, 

1. In the following exercise, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and number, and 
always in this order, thus : "Loves" — Present, indicative, active, third person, sh> 
gular. 

In the Imperative omit the tense, and say thus, " Ijwe thou" — Imperative, active, 
second person, singular. 

In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, and say thus, " To 
love" — Present infinitive, active ; " Loving" — Present participle, active. 

N. B.. — The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to show its per- 



ETYMOLOGY— VERB CONJUGATION. 89 

son and number. The auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separately, but always 
with the verb : so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the future perfect 
indicative, are parsed together as one word ; thus, " Has loved" — the present-per- 
fect, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves. We have loved. He loved. They had loved. 
You shall love. They may have loved. We might love. 
Love thou. To love. You had gone. They will go. To 
have gone. We will wiite. They may write. They should 
go. He has fallen. You had given. We might have gone. 
James has written. Robert loves to write. To write is 
useful. Writing is useful. Having written. We gave. 
They have given. You will give. 

EXERCISE III. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

498. A transitive verb, in the active voice, tells what its subject does to some 
other person or thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb, and is in the 
objective case. Thus, 4< He loves us," loves is a transitive verb, in the active voice, 
and tells us what its subject, he, does to us. Us then is its object, and is in the 
objective case. See also (320). 

1. In the following exercise, tell which words are verbs, and why ; whether 
transitive or intransitive, and why ; what is the subject, and why ; and if transitive, 
what is their object, and why. 

2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number; 
thus, " Loves" — Verb, transitive, regular — love, loved, loved — in the present 
indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves us. I will love him. Good boys study their 
lessons. Children love play. God created the world. Re- 
member thy Creator. Do good to all men. Forgive your 
enemies. He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the 
Lord. You should study grammar. We should read the 
best books. Bad books injure the character. War makes 
rogues, and peace hangs them. Children, obey your pa- 
rents. A good cause makes a strong arm. Show mercy, 
and thou shalt find it. Time flies. Evil communications 
corrupt good manners. Punctuality begets confidence. Co- 
lumbus discovered America. 

JEXERCISE IV. 
PARSING. 

In the preceding exercise, parse each word in order ; the noun, as directed (182) ; 
the article, as directed (194) ; the adjective, as directed (225) ; the pronoun, as 

8* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

directed (253) ; and the verb, as directed (491 or 496). Or. more fully, as an occa- 
sional exercise (492 or 497), thus : — 

" Loves''' — a verb, because it expresses an act, viz., of he. 
transitive, because it has an object, us. 
regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed ; 

conjugated, love, loved, loved, 
present, because the act takes place in present time. 
indicative — it declares the fact simply, 
third person — its subject he is spoken of. 
singular — it asserts of but one. 

Negative form of the Verb. 

499. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after the 
simple form ; as, " Thou lovest not ;" and between the auxiliary and 
the verb in the compound form ; as, u I do not love." When two 
auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them; as, "I would not 
have loved." 

500. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first; as, 
" Not to love" — " Not loving." 

501. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the present and 
past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more common. The following 
synopsis will show the manner of using the negative:— 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 

Pres.-Per. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, &c. 

Past-Per. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 

Fut.-Per. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved, 
loved. &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, &c. 

Pres.-Per. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have loved, 

loved. <fec. 

Past. 1. I might not love. ^. Thou mightst not love, &c. 

Past-Per. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have loved, 

loved. &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 

Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. 7/* thou do not love, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 91 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. 

Perfect. Not having loved. 

Interrogative form of the Verb. 

502. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nomina- 
tive or subject after the simple form; as, " Lovest thou?" and 
between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms ; as, 
44 Do I love?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative is 
placed between them ; as, " Shall I have loved ?" 

503. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can 
not have the interrogative form. 

504. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The following 
synopsis will show how the verb is pnt into the interrogative form : — 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. Do I love? 2. Dost thou love? <tec. 

Pres.-Per. 1. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved? &c. 

Past. 1. Did I love ? 2. Didst thou love? &c. 

Past-Per. 1. Had I loved? 2. Hadst thou loved? &c. 

Future. 1. Shall I love ? 2. Wilt thou love ? &c. 

Fut.-Per. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved ? &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. May I love? 2. Canst thou love? &c. 

Pres.-Per. 1. May I have loved ? 2. Canst thou have loved? &c. 

Past. 1. Might I love ? 2. Couldst thou love ? &c. 

Past-Per. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved? 
loved ? &c. 

505. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative ; as, " Do I not love ? M 
or, "]3o not Hove?" 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Inflect the verb in the negative form. 

2. Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogative form. 

3. Change the exercises (p. 89) into the negative form, and write them out. 

4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into the interrogative 
form, and write them out. 

Progressive form, of the Active Voice. 

506. The Progressive form of the verb is inflected by prefixing 
the verb to be, through all its moods and tenses, to the present par- 
ticiple ; thus, 

Present. 1. I am loving. 2. Thou art loving, &c. 

Pres.-Per. 1. I have been loving. 2. Thou hast been loving, &c. 

Past. 1. I was loving. 2. Thou wast loving, &c. 

Past-Per. 1. I had been loving. 2. Thou hadst been loving, &c. 

Future. 1. I shall be loving. 2. Thou shalt be loving, &c. 

Fut.-Per. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been loving. loving, &c. 

Note.— In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive form : — 
He loves. They read. Thou teachest. We have learned. 

He had written. They go. You will build. I ran. John 
has done it. We taught. He stands. He stood. They 
will stand. They may read. We can sew. You should 
study. We might have read. 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : — 

We are writing. They were singing. They have been 
riding. We might be walking. I may have been sleeping. 
They are coming. Thou art teaching. They have been 
eating. He has been moving. We have been defending. 
They had been running. 

3. Parse the above verbs, in the progressive form ; thus, " We are writing"— 
'* are writing" is a verb, transitive, irregular — write, wrote, written— in the pres- 
ent, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form. 

4 Change the exercises (p. 89) into the progressive form. 

5. Change the exercises, No. 2, into the negative form ; thus, " We are not 
writing' ' — into the interrogative form; as, "Are we writing 1" — into the negative- 
interrogative form ; as, " Are we not writing 1" or, " Are not we writing l h 



ETYMOLOGY VERB— -CONJUGATION. 93 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
507. The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
past participle to the verb " to be" as an auxiliary, through 
all its moods and tenses, thus (486) : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past participle, Loved. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 







PRESENT 


TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I am loved. 




1. We are loved. 


2. 


Thou art loved. 




2. You are loved. 


3. 


He is loved. 




3. They are loved, 



PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. I. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must.— Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou may st be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, may kave, can have, * must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 
PRESENT TENSE. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
Iff I be loved. 
If thou be loved. 
If he be loved. 


Plural. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. 

3. If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


If I were loved. 
If thou wert loved. 
If he were loved. 


1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. 

3. If they were loved. 



* Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. 

t The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, Sec, do not form part of the subjunc- 
tive mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388) 
The pupil may go over the indicative, as a subjunctive, with one or other of these 
conjunctions prefixed. 



ETYMOLOGY VERB CONJUGATION. 95 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural, 

2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having been loved. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

508. The passive voice, in the finite moods, properly affirms of 
the subject the receiving of the act performed by the actor ; and in 
all tenses, except the present, expresses passively precisely the same 
thing that is expressed by the same tense in the active voice : thus, 
"Caesar conquered Gaul," and " Gaul was conquered by Caesar," ex- 
press the same thing. 

509. The present-passive has a somewhat different meaning in different verbs. 
In some, it represents the act as now in progress — in others, as now completed. 
In the former, it expresses passively the present continuance of the action, just as 
the present active does. Thus, "James loves Robert,'* and "Robert is loved by 
James," express precisely the same thing - . In the latter, the present passive 
expresses not the continuance, but the result of the act now finished, as a predi- 
cate of the subject ; as, " The house is built." The act of building is here repre- 
sented, not as continuing, but completed, and the result of the act expressed by 
"built" is predicated of " house." 

510. In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present-passive differs from 
that expressed by the present-active ; the latter expressing a continuing, the for- 
mer a completed act. A continuing act, in this class of verbs, can be expressed 
passively onty when the participle in ing has a passive as well as an active 
sense (456). 

511. There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form in the ac- 
tive voice, except where the participle in ing is used passively : as, " The house 
is building." The form introduced within the last fifty years, and now beginning 
to be defended by one or two grammarians, viz., " The house is being built" ought 
to be regarded only as a clumsy solecism. On this whole subject, see App. V. 

EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
EXERCISE I. 

Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as in the passive voice : — 

Present. Past. Past participle. 

Am commended, was commended, commended. 

Am taught, was taught, taught. 

Am told, was told, told. 

Am placed, was placed, placed. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following exercise, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, wad. person, and 
always in this order, viz. : " Is loved"-— present indicative, passive, third person, 
singular. 

2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus : " Be ye loved," imperative, 
passive, second person, plural. 

3. In the infinitive and participles, omit the person and number, and say thus: 
" To be loved," present infinitive, passive. " Being loved," present participle, 
passive. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it is 
loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have been 
loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; we shall 
be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall 
have been loved ; you will have been loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be loved ; 
they might be loved; ye would be loved; they should be 
loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been loved ; it may 
have been loved ; you might have been loved ; if I be loved ; 
thou wert loved ; we be loved ; they be loved. Be thou loved ; 
be ye loved ; you be loved. To be loved ; loved ; having 
been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

4. Put the above exercises, first in the negative form, and then, in the indicative 
and the potential mood, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502). 

EXERCISE III. 

Change the exercises (page 89) into the passive form. Write them out, and 
then parse them ; thus, " We are loved by him," &c. Put each example in the 
negative form, and those in the indicative or potential, in the interrogative form, at 
directed (499 and 502). 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

512. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its 
past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present. 

513. *** The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs in the lan- 
guage. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly, are marked with an R. 
Those in italics are obsolete, or obsolescent, and now but little used : — 
Present. Past. Past participle. 

Abide abode abode 

Am was been 

Arise arose arisen 



ETYMOLOGY VERBS- 


-IRREGULAR. 


Presenl. 


Past 


Past participle. 


Awake 


awoke, R. 


awaked 


Bake 


baked 


baked, baleen 


Bear, to bring forth 


bore, bare 


born 


Bear, to carry 


bore, bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind, un- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, broke 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build, re- 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Burn 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen, 


Cleave, to adhere 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


cleft, clave 


cleft, R., clovei 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clad, R. 


clad, R. 


Come, be- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, tochallenge, is'. 


El. dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt, 


dealt, Re 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do, mil- un- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 



97 



98 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle* 


Dream 


dreamt, R» 


dreamt, R. 


Drink 


drank 


drank, drunk 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Fall, be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found ' 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get, he- for- 


got, gat 


gotten, got 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird, he- en- 


girt, R. 


girt, R, 


Give, for- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave, en- R» 


graved 


graven, graved 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, R. 


hoven, R. 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold, be- wiih- 


held 


held, holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Knit 


knit, R. 


knit, knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 



* Hang,to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, " The robber was hangedi 
but the gown was hung up." 



ETYMOLOGY VERB 


S IRREGULAR. 


99 


Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 




Lade, to load * 


laded 


laden 




Lay. 


laid 


laid 




Lead, mis- 


led 


led 




Leave 


left 


left 




Lend 


lent 


lent 




Let 


let 


let 




Lie, to recline 


lay 


lain, lien 




Light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 




Lose 


lost 


lost 




Make 


made 


made 




Mean 


meant 


meant 




Meet 


met 


met 




Mow 


mowed 


mown, R. 




Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 




Pen, to enclose 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 




Put 


put- 


put 




Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 




Read 


readf 


readf 




Rend 


rent 


* rent 




Rid 


rid 


rid 




Ride 


rode, rid 


ridden, rid 




Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 




Rise, a- 


rose 


risen 




Rive 


rived 


riven, R. 




Rot 


rotted 


rotten, R. 




Run 


ran, run 


run 


, 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 




Say 


said 


said 




See 


saw 


seen 




Seek 


sought 


sought 




Seethe 


seethed, sod 


seethed, sodden 




Sell 


sold 


sold 




Send 


sent 


sent 




Set, fee- 


set 


set 




Shake 


shook 


shaken 




Shape, ?nis- 


shaped 


shapen, R. 




Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 




Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R. 




* Lade, to t 


lip, is regular. 


t Pronounced red. 





100 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Show 


showed 


shown, R. 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slid den, slid 


Sling 


slung, slang 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slit, slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow, to scatter 


sowed 


sown, R. 


Speak, he- 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spell 


spelt, R. 


spelt, R. 


Spend, mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spit, be- 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread, be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


Stand, with-, &c. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride, fee- 


strode, strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strew,* be- 


strewed 


strewed, strewn 



* Strew and shew are now giving way to straw and show, as they are pro- 
nounced. 



ET 


YMOLOGY VERBS- 


-DEFECTIVE. 


Presen t. 


Past. 


Past participle. 


Strow, fee- 


strowed 


strowed, strown 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, R. 


sweat, R. 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take. be-. &c. 


took 


taken 


Teach, mis- re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear, 


tore, tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 
thought 


told 


Think, fee- 


thought 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriven, R. 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R. 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Wet 


wet, R. 


wet, R. 


Whet 


whet, R. 


whet, R. 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound, R. 


wound 


Work 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


Wring 


wrung, R. 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



101 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

514. A Defective verb is one that wants some of its 
parts. The following list comprises the most important. 
They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary : — 



Present. 


Past. Present. 


Past. 


Can 


could Shall 


should 


May 

Must 


might Will 
Wis 


would 
wist 


Ought 
Quoth 


Wit, > 

quoth Wot > 
Imperative — Beware. 


wot 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

515. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now used to sig- 
nify present duty, and must, to denote present obligation or necessity. 
When they refer to past time, a change is made in the infinitive 
with which they are joined ; thus, Present — " These things ye ought 
to do ;" Past—"- These things ye ought to have done." (426 and 430.) 

516. Will, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the 
second person singular. They are both without inflection in the 
third person singular. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 

517. Wis, wist, which signifies, to know, to imagine, is now obso- 
lete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only in the 
infinitive, in the phrase, " to wit," that is, namely. 

518. Beware (properly he and ware, or wary) is now used only in 
the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary ; as, " Beware of 
him" — " We should beware" 

519. Quoth, to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous language ; 
its nominative always comes after the verb, and it has no variation 
for person, number, or tense; as, " Quoth he" — " Quoth they," &c. 

To defective verbs also properly belong — 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

520. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the exist- 
ence of some action or state, but refer it to no particular 
subject. They are always in the third person singular, and 
in English are preceded by the pronoun it ; as, " It rains" 
— " It hails" — " It behooves," &c. 

521. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, me- 
thought ; meseems, meseemed ; sometimes used for, " It seems to me" 
— ** It appears to me," &c. 

522. The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its subject, 
is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well-known 
cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but which can 
not, or need not, itself be named (246-5). 

EXERCISES. 

1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating why they are 
irregular ; also, stating which are transitive and which are intransitive and why 
(320-1) :— 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave? am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, 
feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, pay, 



ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 103 

ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, 
speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, tear. 

2. Take the first three transitive verbs of the preceding list; conjugate and 
inflect them through all their moods and tenses in the active, and in the passive 
voice. 

EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. In the following exercises, parse the several words ; viz., the 
nouns as directed (182) — articles as (194) — adjectives as (225) — pro- 
nouns as (253) — and verbs as (491 and 496). 

[The words in Italics are prepositions, and the nouns or pronouns 
following them are in the objective case.] 

The wind shakes the trees. The apples fell to the ground. 

God created all things. The heavens are the work of his 

hands. Alexander the Great conquered many countries. 

The sun shines. The fields are covered with grain. The 

crops are excellent. The rivers run into the sea. A good 

man shows pity to the poor (201). The fear of the Lord is 

the beginning of wisdom. Remember thy Creator in the 

days of thy youth. Time flies. All things come to an end. 

A bad man can not be happy. Redeem time. Do good to 

all men. Truth is mighty. 

2. Form a list of ten nouns ; say something- respecting each ; and parse the sen- 
tences so formed, as above. 



ADVERBS. 

523. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to modify it, or denote some cir- 
cumstance respecting it; as, " Ann speaks distinctly; she 
is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly." 

524. An adverb is generally equivalent to a modifying phrase, or adjunct of the 
word to which it is joined. Thus, in the preceding example, " distinctly" means, 
in a distinct manner; "remarkably" in a remarkable degree. So, "now" 
means, at this time ; *'* then" at that time, &c. Hence, adverbs and adverbial 
adjuncts are often used indiscriminately in modifying verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. 

525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another adverb, it sometimes 
also modifies an adjunct a phrase, or a sentence; as, "I met your brother far 
from home" — " He will be here soon after mid-day" — " We shall go immedi- 
ately after the mail arrives." 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

526. A few adverbs are sometimes used as adjuncts of nouns and 
pronouns ; as, " I only [that is, /, and no one else] am escaped alone 
to tell thee/'—-" The women also were present," that is, the women 
as well as the others— in addition to the others, 

The adverbs used in this way are such as the following : Chiefly, 
particularly, especially, entirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, 
partly, also, likewise, too, &c. 

527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs, is called 
an adverbial phrase ; as, in short, in vain, in general, at most, at 
least, at all, on high. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

528. Adverbs have been divided into various classes, 
according to their signification. The chief of these are 
the following > — 

1. Adverbs of Manner ; as, justly, bravely, softly, &c. 

2. Of Place ; as, here, there, where— hither, thence, &c. 

3. Of Time ; as, now, then, when, soon, often, never, &c. 

4. Of Direction ; as, upward, downward, forward, &c. 

5. Of Affirmation ; as, yes, verily, certainly, doubtless, &c. 

6. Of Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c. 

7. Of Interrogation ; as, how? why? when? where? whither? &c. 

8. Of Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c. 

9. Of Quantity ; as, much, some, little, enough, sufficiently, &c, 
10. Of Order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c. 

529. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often nsed as an introduc* 
tory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, and some others, when the 
subject, in declaratory sentences, follows the verb ; as, " There is no doubt of the 
fact" — " There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin" — " There appears to be a 
mistake somewhere." Sometimes, when the subject goes before, it is placed 
between the subject and the verb ; as, "A mistake there is." In all such cases, 
there is a mere expletive. It adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary 
the form of expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise 
exist. This will appear by omitting it in any of the above examples. 

Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a certain circum- 
stance, or a case supposed ; as, " If you will go, then [that is, in that case] say so." 

Now is sometimes used without reference to time, merely to indicate the transi- 
tion from one sentence to another; as, "Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Bar- 
abbas was a robber." 

530. The words, to-day, to-night, to-morrow, yesterday, used as adjuncts, may 
be called adverbs of time, or they may be regarded as nouns in the objective case, 
without the governing word (828). 

531. In comparisons, as and so, in the antecedent clause, are usually reckoned 



ETYMOLOGY— ADVERBS. 105 

adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb. The corresponding 
as and so, sometimes called conjunctions, are properly adverbs also, because 
resolvable into an adjunct (524) ; thus, " It is as high as heaven," that is, It is high 
in the degree in ivliich heaven is high. — " So far as I know," that is, far to the 
extent to which I know. 

532. So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, phrase, or sen- 
tence, in order to prevent its repetition ; as, " To make men happy, and to keep 
them so" — "France is highly cultivated — England more so" — " James is in good 
health, John is not so" — '' I believed that you would succeed, and I told you so." 

533. Therefore, icherefore, also, sometimes called conjunctions, are more prop- 
erly adverbs, because used for the adjuncts, for this reason, for which reason, in 
addition (524). 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

534. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that stands for two adjuncts, 
one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the other, its antece- 
dent ; thus, " I will see you when yon come." Here, when is equiv- 
alent to, at the time at which ; the first part, " at the time" modifies 
"will see," and the second, " at which," modifies "come" Again, 
" I know not how it is done." Here how is equivalent to the manner 
in which. The first part, " the manner," is the object of "know," 
and the second, "in which," is the adjunct of "is done. v In a 
similar way, where may be resolved into the place in which ; 
whither, into the place to which, &c. 

These adverbs perforin a double office ; they modify two different words, and 
connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, when, where, while, whither, 
whence. They are also used interrogatively, both directly and indirectly. Thus 
used, they are not conjunctive ; as, " When [that is, at what time] will you come V 
— " Thou knowest not whence [from what place] it cometh, and whither [to what 
place] it goeth." 

FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

535. Adverbs are formed and derived from other words in various "ways : — 

1. A few adverbs are primitive, or derived from no other words in the language ; 
as, yes, no, not, here, there now, then, &c. 

2. Many adverbs of quality or manner are derived from adjectives by adding ly ; 
as diligent, diligently; happy, happily (57) : or by changing le into ly ; as, able, 
ably ; simple, simply. But adverbs are seldom formed from adjectives in ly, the 
adjunct being used in preference. Thus, we would not say, " He acted manlily," 
but, " in a manly manner," or, u like a man." Still we have holily, wilily, and 
some others. 

3. Many compound adverbs are formed by combining words together, so as of 
two or more words fomiing an adjunct, to make one compound term ; as, indeed, 
hereby, thereby, wherewith, therefore, wheresoever, nevertheless, Sec. 

4. Some nouns and other words are converted into adverbs by prefixing a, sig- 
nifying, at, in, on, &c. ; as, abed, ashore, aloft, ahead, astern, aground, apart f 
adrift, nfresh, alike, asleep, &c, 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as other parts of 
speech; thus — 

Much is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, " He is much better." 

2. As an adjective ; as, " In much wisdom is much grief." 

3. As a noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is required." 
Yesterday is used — 1. As an adverb \ as, " He came yesterday " (530). 

2. As a noun ; as, " Yesterday is past." 
But is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, " Give but one kind word." 

2. As a preposition ; as, " None but the brave." 

3. As a conjunction ; as, " He is poor, but honest." 
What is used — 1. As an interrogative ; as, " What is that ?" 

2. As a relative ; as, "We speak what we know." 

3. As an adverb ; as, " What [partly] with one thing, and what 

[partly] with another, we had enough to do." 

6. Circumstances of time, place, manner, &c, are often expressed by two or 
more words constituting an adverbial phrase (527 and 530) ; as, at lengthy not at 
all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by-and-by, all over, to and fro, for 
ever, &c. Such phrases may be taken together as one word, and parsed as an 
adverb, or separately, as other words, where it can be done, supplying the ellipsis 
when necessary. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

536. Adverbs of quality, derived from adjectives, and a 
few others, admit of comparison like adjectives ; as, nobly, 
more nobly, most nobly ; soon, sooner, soonest. 

The following are compared irregularly ; as- — 
Pos. Com,]?. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Badly, or ill, worse, worst. Much, more, most. 

Far, farther, farthest. Well, better, best. 

Little, less, least. 

PARSING. 

537. An adverb is parsed by stating what part of speech, 
— the class to which it belongs— the word which it modi- 
fies — its derivation and comparison, if derived and com- 
pared. Thus : — 

"He speaks fluently ." — Fluently, an adverb of manner, and modi- 
fies '* speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared more fluently, 
most fluently. 

PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 

When we say, " John runs rapidly," what part of speech is John ? What is 
runs (314) ? What is the use of the word rapidly in that sentence ? What part 
of speech are those words which express the manner of doing a thing (528-1) ? 
What part of speech, then, is rapidly? Why? Can you think of any other 



ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 107 

words tli at might be used to express the manner in which u John runs" ? — " Swift* 
ly, slowly, well, ill." What part of speech are these words ? Suppose you say, 
•* John ran yesterday" — <% John runs now" — " John will run soon' — what ,is the 
use of the words yesterday, ?wu\ soon ? What are words called which express 
a circumstance of time (526-3) ? Then what part of speech are yesterday, now> 
soon? Why? 

What other words besides the verb do adverbs modify (523) ? When we say, 
"John is a very good boy," what word modifies good 1 What part of speech is 
good 1 Why ? Then what part of speech is very ? Why ? 

If I say, " John reads exceedingly well," what w r ord modifies reads ? Ans. 
WelL Then what part of speech is well ? Why ? What word tells us how well 
he reads? What word does exceedingly modify ? Then what part of speech is 
it? Why 1 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell to what class the following- adverbs belong — whether primitive or deriva- 
tive — if not primitive, how they are formed — compare, if compared : — ■ 

Justly, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, sufficiently, 
thirdly, nearly, almost, perfectly. 

Here, there, anywhere, hither, thither* yes, no, thence, 
somewhere — now, then, to-day, hereafter, 

2. Form sentences, each of which shall contain one of the preceding adverbs. 
Parse as directed (537), 

EXERCISES ON ADVERBS, IRREGULAR VERBS, ETC 

Parse the following exercises as in "General Exercises." p. 103, and (537): — 
Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went away 
yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy 
some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sung 
sweetly. Great men are not always wise. Mary rose up 
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain 
wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He is a 
very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read 
too little. They talk too much. James acted wisely. How 
many lines can you repeat ? You ran hastily. He speaks 
fluently. Then were they glad. He fell fast asleep. *She 
should not hold her head still. The ship was driven ashore. 
No, indeed. They are all alike. Let him that is athirst 
drink freely. The oftener you read with attention, the more 
you will improve. Will you be at home when I come ? 
James will sit here, while you stand there. As for this man* 
we know not whence he is. 



108 



ENGLISH GfJtAMAfAK* 



PREPOSITIONS, 

538. A Preposition is a word which shows the rela- 
tion between a noun or pronoun following it, and some 
other word in the sentence ; as, " The lore of money" — * 
" Come to me? 1 

539. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called the 
antecedent terra of the relation, and that which follows it is called 
the subsequent terra. This, being governed by the preposition, is 
also called its regimen, 

540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may be followed 
by an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, used as a substantive; 
as, " We are about to depart." — •" Honored for having done his duty." 
— " The crime of being a young man" 

541. The preposition and its regimen united are called the adjunct of the antece- 
dent term ; and the antecedent term, as related to its adjunct, may be called the 
principal. It is usually a noun, or pronoun f an adjective, a verb, or an adverb ; 
as, " The waters of Jordan." — " He with the book in his hand.'' — " It is good for 
me/' — "Pray for us. T ' — " He acts consistently with his principles/' 

542. The same word not unfrequently has several adjuncts ; as, ■• i He went from 
Boston, by railroad., to New York, in eight hours. 11 Also the noun or pronoun in 
the adjunct may be limited by one or more adjuncts— the whole forming a com- 
pound adjunct; as, "It is consistent with the character of a, man of honor." 
Here, " of honor 1 is the adjunct of m a n ; " of a man of honor 11 is a compound ad- 
junct of character ; and the whole, "with the character of a man of honor 11 is a 
compound adjunct of consistent. 

543. The preposition is so called because it is usually placed before its regimen, 
as in the above examples, Sometimes, however, the sentence may be so inverted 
that the preposition follows its regimen immediately, or at some distance ; as, 
" Where echo walks the steep hills among, 11 — V Whom did he speak to? 11 * 

544. In the natural order of a sentence, the adjunct follows its principal ; as, " He 
withdrew after supper. 11 It is often convenient, however, to arrange the adjunct 
first; as, "After supper, he withdrew with his friend who had called for him." 
Here the same sense can not be given by placing the adjunct, " after supper/' any- 
where e)se in the sentence. 



545. A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS, 

To be got accurately by heart. 



About 


Along 


Around 


Below 


Above 


Amid 1 
Amidst } 


At 


Beneath 


Across 


Athwart 


Beside \ 


After 


Among i 
Amongst ) 


Before 


Besides j 


Against 


Be bind 


Between 





ETVMOLOGV- 


-PREPOSITIONS. 


Betwixt 


In 


Round 


Underneath 


Beyond 


Into 


Save 


Until 


But 


Notwithstandin. 


g Since 


Unto 


% 


Of 


Through 


Up 


Concerning 


Off 


Throughout 


Upon 


Down 


On 


Till 


With 


During 


Over 


To 


Within 


Except 


Out of 


Touching 


Without 


Excepting 


Past 


Toward i 
Towards ) 




For 


Regarding 




From 


Respecting 


Under 





109 



546. Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, and touching, were origi- 
nally present participles active, of transitive verbs, and as such required an objec- 
tive case after them (801). They may frequently be so construed still. During may 
be regarded as originally the present participle active, of an intransitive verb, hav- 
ing the noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute (769) ; thus, " During life," 
means life during, or 'while life endures. Notwithstanding, a compound of not, 
and the present participle 'withstanding, may be explained in the same way. Still, 
when used as a preposition, the word following must be regarded in the objective 
case (818). 

547. Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of may be regarded 
either as two words — an adverb and preposition — or as one word, forming a sort 
of compound preposition. Of this character are the following: From between, 
from beyond, from within, from without, over against, and the like. Off is, for 
the most part, an adverb, and means at a distance ; as, " Far off." With a noun 
or pronoun following, it is a preposition, and means not on. from, &c. ; as, " Off 

r the table.'' 

548. The prefix a in the sense of at, in, on, &c, seems to have the force of a 
preposition in such expressions as a reading, a running, a going, a hunting, Sec. 
(190), and may be parsed as such. 

549. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, should not be regarded as a preposition, 
but as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the verb in that part. 

550. When a preposition has not an object, it becomes an adverb ; as, " He rides 
about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out, fall on, &c, up, out, on, should 
be considered as a part of the verb to which they are joined, rather than as prepo- 
sitions or adverbs. 

551. Several words in the preceding list are used sometimes as prepositions and 
sometimes as other parts of speech ; thus, till, until, after, before, &c, are frequently 
adverbs. But and save, followed by the objective case, are used as prepositions; 
followed by a nominative, as conjunctions. For and since are also used as con- 
junctions. 

552. All words used as prepositions are followed by an objective 
case, and may by this be distinguished from other words. 

10 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

PARSING. 

553. A preposition is parsed b) r stating what part of 
speech, and between what words, it shows the relation ; 
thus, " The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, and 
shows the relation between Jordan and waters. 

Here Jordan is the regimen of the proposition of; of Jordan is the adjunct of 
waters ; and water* is the principal to which the adjunct belongs, 

554. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES. 

When I say, " The hook is on the table," what word shows the relation of book 
to the table 1 What part of speech are words that show the relation between 
nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence ? Then what part of speech 
is on 1 Could the book be in any other relation to the table than on it ? It might 
be tf^f the table, above the table, under the table, beside the table, &c>. Then what 
part of speech are off, above, under, beside ? Why ? When we say, u They live 
in the country/' what word shows the relation between country and live ? Then 
what part of speech is in? 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the words between 
which it shows the relation* Name the adjunct and principal. In what sen- 
tences has the principal more than one adjunct ?*— in what a compound adjunct? 

He went from Boston. He went to Washington. He 
w r ent from Boston to Washington. We reside in the coun- 
try. " All rivers flow into the sea. He gave his book to me. 
He gave [to] me his book. Flowers bloom in summer. In^ 
summer flowers bloom. He gave part of his dinner to a 
poor man in the street. He was travelling toward Rome 
when we met him at Milan, without a single attendant. Be 
kind one to another. The love of money is the root of all 
evil. Do good to all men. Be not overcome of evil, but 
overcome evil with good. For his gallant conduct in rescu- 
ing so many from a watery grave, he was highly honored. 

2. In the preceding exercise, parse each word in order as directed, p. 103, and 
Nos. 537 and 553. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

555. An Interjection is a word used in exclama- 
tions, to express an emotion of the mind; as, "Oh! what 
a fall was there !" 



ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCTIONS. Ill 

556. The Interjection is so called* because it is, as it were, thrown in among 
the words of a sentence, without any grammatical connection with them* Some* 
times it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle) and some- 
times it stands alone, as if the emotion were too strong to admit of other words 
being spoken. 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS- 
DO?. The following is a list of the interjections most commonly 

used. They express various kinds of emotion, but in so vague and 

indefinite a way, as not to admit of accurate classification :— » 

Ah ! alas ! O ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush ! pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! fie ! 

avaunt ! ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! bravo ! hist ! hush ! 

heigho ! heyday ! hail ! lo ! welcome ! halloo ! adieu ! &c. 

558. Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an 
unconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, are called interjections ; as, 
nonsense! strange! wonderful! shocking! ichat ! behold! off! away ! hark! 
come ! icell done ! welcome ! &c. 

559. O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be prefixed only 
to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " O Virtue ! how amiable thou art !" 
Oh is used detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after 
the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise : as, " Oh ! 
what a sight is here !" 

PARSING. 

560. An interjection is parsed by stating the part of 
speech, why, and the emotion expressed ; as, " Oh ! what 
a sight is here !" Oh — an interjection, because used as 
an exclamation, and expresses an emotion of pain. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

561. A Conjunction is a word which connects words 
or sentences ; as, " He and I must go ; but you may stay." 

562. Here, and connects the words He and I, and but connects the sentences, 
*' He and I must' go" and " you may stay." 

563. Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences, even after a full period, to show a 
connection between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. See, as exam- 
ples, the first chapter of Genesis. 

564. Conjunctions are divided into two classes : Copu~ 
lative and Disjunctive. 

565, Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be consid* 



- 



J 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ered together. They are, and, both, as, because, for, if, since, 
that 

566. And is the principal copulative, and connects what follows 
as an addition to that which precedes. The others connect what 
follows as a condition, supposition, cause, motive, &c. 

567. Both is an antecedent conjunction, related to and. When 
used, it precedes the first of the words or sentences connected by 
and, to make the connection more emphatic. 

568. Disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be consid- , 
ered separately. The leading disjunctives are, or, nor, either, neither, 
than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, not- 
withstanding. 

569. Or and nor are the principal disjunctives. Or connects 
words and sentences in such a way as to show that what follows is 
not added to, but is the alternate of, that which precedes. The 
other disjunctives connect what follows as a concession or doubt, or 
as something opposed to what goes before. 

570. Either and neither are antecedent conjunctions, related to or 
and nor respectively. When used, they precede the first of the 
words or sentences connected by or or nor, to render them more 
emphatic. 

571. Therefore and wherefore, sometimes called conjunctions, are more properly 
adverbs (533). 

PARSING. 

572. A conjunction is parsed by stating the part of' 
speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it. con- 
nects ; as, " He and I must go, but you may stay." 

And — a copulative conjunction, and connects the words He and I. 

But — a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the sentences, " He 
and I must go," and " you may stay." 

573. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES. 

When we say, " John and James study," what word connects John and James ? 
What class of words connects words and sentences? What part of speech is 
and? In the sentence, " John reads and writes," what does and connect ? What 
does and connect in the following phrases, " A red and white rose" — " A red rose 
and a white rose'' — " Well and truly said" ? What conjunction connects the fol- 
lowing sentences, " They are happy, because they are good" ? Here the following 
facts may be noticed (946, &c.) : — 

1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same case, and 
in the same construction. 



ETYMOLOGY PARSING. 113 

2. When two verbs are connected, they have the same subject; as, " James 

reads and writes." 

3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the same noun or pronoun. 

4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word. 

5. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect individual words 

in the sentence. Thus, " They are happy, because they are good," the 
conjunction does not connect they with they, nor are with are, nor happy 
with good; but, " They are happy," with "they are good." So also, 
when they connect phrases : " He spoke to James and to me" — " Of him, 
and through him, and to him, are all things." 

EXERCISES ON CONJUNCTIONS. 

• 1. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, and state what words, 
or sentences, or phrases, they connect. Sometimes the order is so inverted, that the 
conjunctive clause stands first. 
2. Parse the words in their order. 

Time and tide wait for no man. The evening and the 
morning were the first day. The memory of the just is 
blessed, but the name of the wicked shall rot. If thou faint 
in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. Two and two 
make four. George or John will go. They will succeed 
because they are industrious. Because they are industrious 
they will succeed. OF him, and through him, and to him, 
are all things. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Of making many books there is no end, and much study is a 
weariness to the flesh. 



PARSING. 

574. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or farts of speech. 

575. Words may be parsed in two ways : Etymologi- 
cally, and Syntactically. 

1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts of 
speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its uses 
and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and derivation. 

2. Syntactical parsing adds to the above a statement of 
the relation in which the words stand to each other, and 
the rules according to which they are combined in phrases 
and sentences. 

10* 






114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. In the natural order. Etymological parsing should precede Analysis, 
because we can not analyze a sentence before we have learned K the character of 
the words it contains ; and Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing, because, 
till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their 
relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. Still, these are 
all so intimately connected and blended together, that to do any one of them in the 
best manner, a knowledge of all is necessary. As Etymological parsing has to do 
only with the accidents of words, it matters not whether what is parsed consists 
of words unconnected or in sentences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical par- 
sing, not only must the words constitute a sentence, but that also must be both intel- 
ligible and understood : for no one can either analyze or parse Syntactically that 
which he does not understand. 

ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 

576. Words are parsed etymologically in the manner 
directed under each part of speech, viz. : Nouns (1S2) — 
article (194) — adjectives (225) — pronouns of different 
kinds, viz., personal (253), relative (278), interrogative 
(286), adjective (313) — verbs (491 and 496) — adverbs 
(537) — prepositions (553) — interjections (560) — conjunc- 
tions (572). 

577. For a pupil to be expert and accurate in this exercise, is of much impor- 
tance, in order to pursue with pleasure and success the study of Syntax, and to a 
correct understanding of the forms and usages of speech, in the English language. 

578. A sentence to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is necessary for the 
pupil, in the first place, to understand, it. When he understands a sentence, and 
also the definition of the different parts of speech given in the grammar, he will not 
find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them each word belongs ; that is, 
which of the words are " names of things," or nouns ; which " express the quality 
of things," or, "affirm anything concerning them," that is to say, which words are 
adjectives, and which are verbs. This method will exercise the discriminating 
powers of the pupil better, engage his attention much more, and, on trial, be found 
much more easy and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every occa- 
sion — a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, instead of leading 
him to exercise his own powers, and depend on his own resources, will lead him 
to habits of slavish dependence on the authority of others. 

579. The following general principles should be remembered, and steadily kept 
In view in parsing every sentence, viz. :■— 

1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pronoun, expressed 
or understood. 

2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing spoken of, is 
always in the nominative (except when the verb is in the infinitive), 
and is said to be the nominative to the verb. 



ETYMOLOGY PARSING. 115 

3. Every verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or impera- 
tive mood, has a nominative or subject, expressed or understood. 

4. Every verb in the active voice used transitively, and every 
preposition, is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, or 
by an infinitive mood or clause of a sentence equivalent to it ; and 
every objective case, except as in (828), is governed by an active 
transitive Verb, or preposition. 

5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends on, or is gov- 
erned by, a verb or adjective. 

580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. 

" The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively examined, 
affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the 
Omnipotent Hand by which it was created."* 

Previous to parsing this sentence, the pupil may be led to understand it better 
and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attending to such questions as the follow- 
ing : What is spoken of in this sentence ? How are plant and animal qualified 1 
What is said of them thus qualified ? How is wonders limited ? What else is 
said of them ? Whom do they oblige ? What do they oblige us to do ? How is 
hand qualified ? What hand ? &c. 

581. These words may be parsed fully, thus : — 
The .... Definite article, showing that plant and animal are defined. 
minutest . . An adjective, because it qualifies a noun, plant, &c. 
compared by er and est, or by prefixing more and most, 
superlative degree — expresses the greatest degree of minuteness 
compared with others. 
plant . . . . A noun — the name of an object. 
neuter — is without sex. 

nominative, because the subject of affords and obliges, 
singular — it denotes but one ; plural, plants. 

* In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to repeat the 
words gender, number, case, tense, mood, voice. Thus, "Father is a noun, mas- 
culine gender, in the nominative case, singular number." — It is enough, and is both 
neater and briefer, to say, "A noun masculine, in the nominative singular." So 
"with the verb: instead of saying, "Loves is a verb," &c, "in the present tense, in- 
dicative mood, active voice> third person, singular number," it is sufficient and bet- 
ter to say, " In the present indicative, active, third person singular." The conju- 
gating of regular verbs also, without any detriment, may be omitted, the form of the 
principal parts being sufficiendy ascertained when they are said to be regular 
(491, note). All this saves much time, and is just as explicit as the full form often 
used. For the same reason, and as formerly mentioned (180), the words proper 
and common, as applied to nouns, may be omitted ; because, whether a noun is 
proper or common, makes no difference in the construction of a sentence : no use 
is made of it, nothing depends on it. In like manner, the designation of person, as 
applied to nouns, may be omitted, except when they are of the first or second, if it 
be understood that they are always of the third person when not otherwise men- 
tioned. This plan is here adopted and recommended. Still, it is expected that 
every teacher will adopt that method which he thinks best. In parsing, economy 
of time, without loss of advantage, is an object of much importance. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

or A disjunctive conjunction — connects plant and animal as alter- 
nates. 
animal ... A noun — the name of an object. 

neuter — considered without sex (125). 

nominative singular, for reasons above. 
if A conjunction — connects the sentence, " [it is] attentively exam- 
ined," as a condition, to the sentence, "affords," &c. 
it A pronoun — stands instead of a noun, plant or animal. 

neuter — it denotes neither male nor female 

personal — its form indicates its person. 

third person — it is spoken of 

singular — it denotes but one. 
is examined A verb — expresses an act. 

transitive — expresses an act done to plant, &c, represented by it. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

present — expresses a present act. 

indicative — used subjunctively, and expresses a condition. 

passive — represents the subject as acted upon. 

third person — affirms of its subject spoken of. 

singular — affirms of but one. 
attentively . An adverb — modifies examined; formed from the adjective attentive 

by adding ly ; compared by prefixing: more and most, 
affords ... A verb — it expresses an act of its subject, plant or animal. 

transitive — expresses what the subject does to its object, wond&rs. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

present — expresses a present act. 

indicative — declares simply. 

active — represents its subject as acting. 

third person — affirms of its subject spoken of. 

singular — affirms of but one. 
a Indefinite article — showing that " thousand wonders" is put in- 
definitely as one whole, that is, one thousand, 
thousand . . An adjective — qualifies wonders, 

numeral — denotes number. 

cardinal — denotes how many ; not compared. 
wonders . . A noun — the name of an object. 

neuter — without sex. 

objective — the object of affords. 

plural — denotes more than one. 
and ..... Copulative conjunction — connects the succeeding sentence as an 

addition to the preceding. 
obliges . . . Same as affords. 

us A personal pronoun — the substitute of the speaker and others, and 

consequently first person. 

masculine or feminine — may denote males or females. 

objective — the object of obliges. 

plural — denotes more than one. 
to admire . A verb — expresses an act. 

transitive — has an object, hand. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 



ETYMOLOGY PARSING. H? 

present— expresses an act present at the time referred to in the pre- 
ceding verb, obliges, 
infinitive— without limitation of person or number, 
oc^'ye— represents the subject referred to (395) as acting. It is the 
attribute of us, or has us for its subject. 

an d Copulative conjunction — connects to adore as an addition to to 

admire. 
adore .... Same as admire, without the sign (880). 

that Demonstrative adjective pronoun— used to point out definitely 

the word hand. 
Omnipotent An adjective— qualifies hand ; not compared, because it does not 

admit of increase. 
hand .... A noun — same as wonders, except — 

singular— denotes one, and is the object of admire and adore. 

by A preposition— shows the relation between was created and which, 

which .... Relative pronoun— neuter, in the objective singular, and refers to 
hand as its antecedent, and is governed by by. 
singular — means but one. 

it A personal pronoun— stands for plant or animal, same as before. 

was created A verb— expresses an act done by hand, represented by which. 

transitive— expresses an act done by one person or thing to another. 

regular — its past tense and past participle end in ed. 

past — expresses an act now past. 

indicative — decl ares simply . 

passive — represents its subject as acted upon. 

third person — its subject is spoken of. 

singular — affirms of one. 

ABBREVIATED MODEL. 

582. The length of time necessary to parse even a few words in 

this way, renders it impracticable to do it often, though occasionally 

it may be profitable. The following brief method will answer every 

purpose : — 

The ..... Definite article, belonging to plant and animal, and showing them 
to be limited. 

minutest . . Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying plant, &c. 

plant .... A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. 

or A disjunctive conjunction, connecting plant and animal as alternates. 

animal ... A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. 

if A conjunction, connecting the sentences. 

it Third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, standing 

for plant or animal, and subject of is examined. 

is examined A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, passive, expres- 
sing what is done to its subject, it, used for plant or animal. 

attentively . An adverb, modifying examined ; compared by more and most. 

affords ... A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, third per. 
son singular, and affirms of plant or animal. 

a Indefinite article showing thousand to be indefinite. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thousand . . A numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders. 

wonders . . A noun, neuter, in the objective plural, object of affords. 

and A copulative conjunction ; connects the predicates affords, &c., and 

obliges. 
obliges ... A verb transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, third per- 
son singular, and affirms of plant or animal, 
us First personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, in the objective plural, 

object of obliges, and subject of to admire, &c. 
to admire . . A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, attribute of 

us, or object of obliges. 
and ...... A copulative conjunction ; connects to admire and to adore. 

to adore. . . A verb transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, attribute of 

us, or object of obliges. 

that Demonstrative adjective pronoun, definitely pointing out hand. 

Omnipotent An adjective, qualifying hand ; not compared. 

hand .... A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of adore. 

by A preposition, which shows the relation between was created and 

which. 
which .... A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objective, and 

governed by by. 

it Third personal pz'onoun, same as before ; subject of was created. 

was created A verb transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, third person 

singular, and affirms of it. 



583. EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

1. Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or without a conjunction, 
qualify the same word ; as, 

1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his master's 
interest. 2. A dismal, dense, and portentous cloud overhangs the 
city. 3. A steady, sweet, and cheerful temper affords great delight 
to its possessor. 4. He has bought a fine new coat. 

2. When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally qualifies them both ; as, 
1. They waited for a fit time and place, 2. I am delighted with 

the sight of green woods and fields. 3. He displayed great pru- 
dence and moderation. 4. He was a man of great wisdom and 
moderation. 

3. When an adjective comes after a verb intransitive, it generally qualifies the 
nominative of that verb ; as, 

1. John is wise. 2. They were temperate. 3. The sky is very 
clear. 4. These rivers are deep and rapid. 5. The apples will 
soon be ripe. 6. We have been attentive to our lessons. 7. These 
mountains are very high. 



E T YMOLOGY PARSING. 



119 



4. Whatever words the verb " to be" serves to unite, referring to the same thing, 
must be of the same case ; as, 

1. Alexander is a student. 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 
3. Hope is the balm of life. 4. Content is a great blessing, envy a 
great curse. 5. Knowledge is power. 6. His meat was locusts and 
wild honey. 7, He was the life of the company. 

Note.— It is necessarv to the application of this rule, that the words connected 
refer to the same thing. *This connexion is often made by other words than the 
verb "to be' (601 or 797). 

5. Nouns and pronouns, placed together for the sake of emphasis, or explanation, 
and denoting the same object, are said to be in apposition, and always agree in 



case ; as, 



1. Alexander, the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apostle 
Paul. 2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. 3. Thom- 
son, the author of the Seasons, is a delightful poet. 4. Temper- 
ance, the best preserver of health, should be the study of all men. 

Note —In parsing such sentences as those above, a relative and a verb may be 
inserted between the words in apposition. Myself, thyself, himself, &c, often 
stand at a considerable distance from the words with which they agree ; as, 

5. Thomas despatched the letter himself. 6. They gathered the 
flowers in the garden themselves. 7. Ann saw the transaction her- 
self, and could not be mistaken. 

6 Myself, thyself, himself &c, often form the objectives after active-transitive 
verbs, of which the words they represent are the subjects or nominatives. They 
are in' such cases generally called Reflexive pronouns; as, 

1. /hurt myself. 2. He wronged himself, to oblige us. 3. They 
will support themselves by their industry. 4. She endeavored to 
show herself off to advantage. 5. We must confine ourselves more 
to our studies. 6. They hurt themselves by their great anxiety. 

7. Adjectives, taken as nouns, and used in reference to persons, are generally of 
the plural number (201) ; as, 

1. The valiant never taste of death but once. 2. The virtuous 
are generally the most happy. 3. The diligent make most improve- 
ment. 4. The sincere are always esteemed. 5. The inquisitive 
are generally talkative. 6. The dissipated are much to be pitied. 

8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in the same connexion, must be of the same 



case; as, 



1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He and she were 
schoolfellows. 3. My brother and he are tolerable grammarians. 
4. He gave the book to John and Thomas. 5. I lent my knife and 
pencil to one of the scholars, 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. A relative generally precedes the verb that governs it ; as, 

1. He is a friend whom I greatly respect 2. They whom luxury 
has corrupted, can not relish the simple pleasures of life. 3. The 
books which I bought yesterday I have not yet received. 4. The 
trees which he planted in the spring have all died. 

10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb belonging to it, 
the relative is commonly the nominative to the first verb, and the antecedent to the 
second ; as, 

1. He who acts wisely deserves praise. 2. He who is a stran- 
ger to industry may possess, but he can not enjoy. 3. They who 
are born in high stations are not always the most happy. 4. The 
man who is faithfully attached to religion may be relied on with 
confidence. 

11. What always has its antecedent understood, and may be regarded as equiv- 
alent to that which, or the tldng which, and in parsing may be so resolved. It 
may represent two cases, either both nominative or both objective, or, the one nom- 
inative and the other objective ; as, 

1. This is precisely what was necessary. 2. What can not be 
prevented, must be endured. 3. We must not delay till to-morrow 
what ought to be done to-day. 4. Choose what is most fit; custom 
will make it the most agreeable. 5. Foolish men are more apt to 
consider what they have lost than what they possess. 6. What he 
gained by diligence, he squandered by extravagance. 

12. Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple relative, and a general or 
indefinite antecedent, and in parsing may be so resolved; thus, whoever — any- 
one who. The same is the case with whatever and whatsoever ; whatever = every- 
thing which ; as, 

- 1. Whoever fold such a story, must have been misinformed. 
2. WTioever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly happy 
in the midst of plenty. 3. Whoever passes his time in idleness, can 
make but little improvement. 4. Whatever gives pain to others, 
deserves not the name of pleasure. 5. Whatever is worth doing at 
all, is worth doing well. 

Note. — Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is (277), simply to 
qualify a noun ; as, 

6. Aspire at perfection, in ivhatever state of life you may be 
placed. 7. I forget what words he uttered. 8. By what means 
shall we obtain wisdom ? 9. By whatever arts we may attract 
attention, we can secure esteem only by amiable dispositions. 

13. Though participles never directly declare, yet they always imply something 
either done or doing ; and are used in reference to some noun or pronoun ; as, 

1. A dmired and ajyplauded, he became vain. 2. Having finished 



ETYMOLOGY PARSING. 121 

our lessons, we went to play. 3. Proceeding on his journey, he was 
seized with a dangerous malady. 4. Being engaged at the time of 
my call, he had not a moment to spend with me.- 

14. The perfect participle of a few intransitive verbs is sometimes joined to the 
verb " to be," which gives such verbs a passive appearance ; as, 

1. I am come, in compliance with your desire. 2. If such max- 
ims and practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue ? 
3. The old house is fallen down. 4. John is gone to London. 

15. Intransitive verbs are often followed by prepositions, making what are 
sometimes called compound transitive verbs. The verb and preposition may in 
such cases be parsed, either together or separately, in the active voice. In the 
passive voice they must be parsed together ; as, 

1. He laughed at such folly. 2. They smiled upon us in such a 
way as to inspire courage. 3. He struck at his friend with great 
violence. 4. He was sadly laughed at for such conduct. 

16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, without being connected 
in grammatical construction with any other words of the sentence. It is then 
called the nominative absolute ; as, 

1. The father being dead, the whole estate came into the hands 
of the eldest son. 2. He destroyed, or won to w r hat may work his 
utter loss, all this will soon follow. 3. Whose gray top shall trem- 
ble, he descending. 

17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, need, make, 
see, hear, feel, and let ; and sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have? 
know, &c, in the active voice, but is retained after the same verbs in the 
passive ; as, 

1. Let me look at your portrait. 2. He bade me go with him. 
3. I heard him assert the opinion. 4. I like to see you behave so 
well. 5. Let him apply to his books, and then he will make 
improvement. 6. Let us make all the haste in our power. 7. I 
saw him ride past at great speed. 8. I have observed some satirists 
use the term. 

18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the same mood and tense; 
but in the compound tenses, the sign is often used with the first only, and under- 
stood with the rest ; as, 

1. He can neither read no$ write. 2. He shall no longer tease 
and vex me as he has done. 3. He commanded them that they 
should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of the 
father. 4. His diligence should have been commended and rewarded. 

19. Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed 
by prepositions understood ; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a 
governing word ; as, 

1, He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair, 2> Will 
11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

you lend me your knife ? 3. It is not time yet to go home. 4. He 
returned home at a very inconvenient season. 5. He travelled on 
foot, last summer, as far as London. 6. He was in Paris last month. 

20. The conjunctions than, and as, implying comparison, have the same case 
after them as before them ; and the latter case has the same construction as the 
former; as, 

1. He has more books than my brother (has). 2. Mary is not 
so handsome as her sister (is). 3. They respect him more than (they 
respect) us. 4. James is not so diligent as Thomas. 5. They are 
much greater gainers than I, by this unexpected event. 

21. The class of words, or part of speech to which a word belongs, depends often 
on its application ; as, 

1. Calm was the day and the scene delightful. 2. We may ex- 
pect a calm after a storm. 3. To prevent passion is easier than to 
calm it. 4. Better is a little with content, than a great deal with 
anxiety. 5. The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which 
are stealing softly after them. 6. A little attention will rectify 
some errors. 7. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
8. He labored to still the tumult. 9. Still waters are commonly 
deepest. 10. Damp air is unwholesome. 11. Guilt often casts a 
damp over our sprightliest hours. 12. Soft bodies damp the sound 
much more than hard ones. 

22. Do, have, and be, are "principal verbs when used by themselves, but auxilia- 
ries when connected with other verbs ; as, 

1. He does all in his power to gain esteem. 2. He did his 
utmost to please his friend. 3. We must do nothing that will sully 
our reputation. 4. She has a strong claim to our respect. 5. The 
man who has no sense- of religion is little to be trusted. 6. He who 
does the most good has the most pleasure. 7. He is at home. 
8. They are all well there. 

23. An infinitive, a participle used as a noun, or a member of a sentence, which 
may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative to a verb, or the objec- 
tive after an active transitive verb or preposition ; as, 

1. Nominative.— 1. To §tudy hard is the best way to improve. 
2. To end are misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a 
great mind. 3. To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy, and com- 
fort the distressed, are duties incumbent on all. 4. John's being 
from home occasioned the delay. 5. His having, neglected opportu- 
nities of improvement, was the cause of his disgrace. 

2. Objective. — 1. He that knows how to do good and does it not, 
is without excuse. 2. He will regret his having neglected opportu- 
nities of improvement when it may be too late. 3. He declared 



ETYMOLOGY PARSING. 123 

that nothing could give him greater pleasure. 4. Of making many 
books there is no end. 5. You will never repent of having done 
your duty. 

24. When a substantive phrase is governed by a verb or preposition, this regi- 
men does not affect the case of individual nouns or pronouns in that phrase, but 
leaves the subject to the influence of other words within the phrase itself. 

If the infinitive or participle of the verb " to be," or of a passive verb of naming, 
&c., is used in this way without a definite subject, the substantive which follows it 
as a predicate is neither the subject of a verb nor is under the regimen of any 
word ; thus, " His being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard." 
The phrase, " being an expert dancer'' is the subject of the verb, " does entitle;" 
but the word "dancer" in that phrase, is neither the subject of any verb, nor 
governed by any word in the sentence. Of this kind are all such expressions as 
the following: " It is an honor to be the author of such a work." — " To be surety 
for a stranger is dangerous.'' — " The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall 
attempt neither to palliate nor deny." — Pitt. In all such examples, whether the 
phrase be the subject of a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb or preposi- 
tion, the noun or pronoun following the verb " to be," or a passive verb, is properly 
in the predicate-nominative (651 and 795). The words may be parsed separately, 
or the whole phrase may be parsed as one word. — See App. VI. 

1. He had the honor of being a director for life. 2. By being a 
diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his profession. 
3. Many benefits result to men from being wise and temperate 
(men). 

25. It often refers to persons, or to an infinitive coming after ; as, 

1. It is John that is to blame. 2. It was I that wrote the letter. 
3. It is the duty of all to improve. 4. It is the business of every 
man to prepare for death. 5. It was reserved for Newton to dis- 
cover the law of gravitation. 6. It is easy to form good resolutions, 
but difficult to put them in practice. 7. It is incumbent on the 
young to love and honor their parents. 

26. Words, especially in poetry, are often much transposed ; as, 

1. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 2. On yourself depend for 
aid. 3. Happy the man who puts his trust in his Maker. 4. Of 
night the gloom was dark and dense. 

5. Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

6. No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 

7. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

As additional exercises in parsing, sentences from any plain, sim- 
ple, and accurate composition, such as are contained in the reading- 
lessons, may be selected. The exercises under the head of 
" Analysis," page 125, &c, may be used for the same purpose. 



PART III. 



SYNTAX. 

584. Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of 
the proper arrangement and connexion of words in a sen- 
tence. 

585. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes com- 
plete sense ; as, '" Man is mortal." 

586. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
making complete sense; as, "In truth" — "In a word" — "To say 
the least." 

587. Sentences are of different kinds, according to the nature of 
the thought intended to be expressed. They are — 

1. Declaratory, or such as declare a thing, as, " God is love." 

2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question ; as, " Lovest thou me ?" 

3. Imperative, or such as express a command ; as, " Lazarus, come 
forth." 

4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation; as, "Behold 
how he loved him !" 

588. All sentences are either simple or compound. 

589. A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation; as, "Life 
is short." 

590. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together; as, "Life, which is short, should be well im- 
proved." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

591. A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the 
subject, and the predicate. 

592. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

593. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 125 

594. The word affirm here is to be understood as applying to all kinds of sen- 
tences — declaratory, whether affirmative or negative, interrogatory, imperative, 
or exclamatory. 

595. The name of the person or thing addressed forms no part of the sentence; 
as, " Lazarus, come forth." 

596. The subject is commonly, but not always, a noun or pronoun (614). In 
imperative sentences, it is always thou, or you, or ye, and is often understood ; as, 
" Come [thou] forth." 

597. The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute affirmed of the 
subject, and the copula, hy which the affirmation is made. 

Thus, in the sentence, " God is love," God is the subject, and is loveis the pred- 
icate, in which love is the attribute, and ?s,the copula. 

598. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, which in that 
case must always be a verb ; as, "The fire bui'ns" = " The fire is burning." 
Hence — 

599. The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, some- 
times a preposition with its case, or an adverb — also an infinitive, or 
clause of a sentence, connected with the subject by a copula (621). 
Or it may be a verb, which includes in itself both attribute and cop- 
ula (598). 

600. When a verb does not complete the predicate, but is used as a copula only, 
it is called a copulative verb ; when it includes both attribute and copula, it is 
called an attributive verb. 

601. The copulative verbs are such as to be, to become, to seem, to appear ; and 
the passives of deem, style, call, name, consider, &c. 

602. The verbs to be, to appear, are sometimes also used as attributives ; as, 
" There are lions in Africa." — " The stars appear." When so used, and the sub- 
ject is placed after the verb, the sentence is introduced by the word there (529), as 
in the first example. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following, point out which are sentences, and why — which are phrases, 
and why. 

2. In the sentences, which is the subject, and why ? — which is the predicate, 
and why? Also which predicates are made by copulative verbs, and which by 
attributives ? In both, what is the attribute ? 

Snow is white. Ice is cold. Birds fly. Roses blossom. The 
tree is tall. The fields are green. Grass grows. To say nothing. 
Man is mortal. God is immortal. Home is sweet. Sweet is home. 
Who is Paul ? Has he come? Will James go? Are you tired? 
At all events. To be sure. There is hope. Time flies. Go in 
peace. Come thou. Come. Fear not. How tall you are ! To 
say the truth. 

3. Of each of the first ten words following, predicate some act. Of the next ten, 
predicate some quality. Of the next ten, predicate what each one is. 

n* 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thunder, the wind, 
the clouds, time, he. 

Snow, grass, the sun, the earth, the house, the field, books, she, 
they, James. 

Gold, grass, bread, clouds, wheat, a chair, a horse, a noun, Wash- 
ington, England, Thames, London. 

4. Analyze each of the sentences thus made, as directed above (2). 

THE SUBJECT. 

603. — I. The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or 
logical. 

604. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, 
unlimited by other words. 

605. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together 
with all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined. 
Thus— 

In the sentence, " Every man at his best state is vanity," the grammatical sub- 
ject is man ; the logical is, Every man at his best state. 

606. When the grammatical subject has no limiting words connected with it, 
then the grammatical and the logical subject are the same : as,." God is good." 

EXERCISES. 

1. In each of the following sentences, point out the grammatical and the logic 
al subject. 

2. Analyze the sentences by pointing out the subject and the predicate in 
each: — 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. Wisdom's ways 
are pleasantness : all her paths are peace. The love of money is the 
root of all evil. All things that are durable are slow in growth. 
Human knowledge is progressive. A mind open to flattery is always 
in danger. Our knowledge of a future world is imperfect. Time is 
money. Righteousness exalteth a nation. A soft answer turneth 
away wrath. He that despiseth his neighbor, sinneth. He that 
hath mercy on the poor is happy. Do they not err that devise 
evil ? 

607. II. — The subject of a proposition is either simple or compound. 

608. A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either un- 
limited, or modified as in the preceding exercises. It may be a noun 
or pronoun, an infinitive mood, a participial noun, or a clause of a 
sentence. 

609. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, 
to which belongs but one predicate ; as, "James and John are broth- 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 127 

ers." — " You and I are friends." — " Two and three are five." — " Good 
men and bad men are found in all countries."* 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, state what are the subjects — what are the predi- 
cates. 

2. State whether the subjects are simple or compound ; limited or unlimited. 
In each simple subject, point out the grammatical subject — the logical subject — and 
say what each means : — 

Paul and Silas sang praises unto God. Peter and John went up 
into the temple. Gold and silver are precious metals. His food was 
locusts and wild honey. Socrates and Plato were Grecian philoso- 
phers. In unity consist the welfare and security of society. Sum- 
mer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease. In the begin- 
ning, God created the heavens and the earth. In the beginning, the 
heavens and the earth were created. 

3. Write predicates to the following compound subjects : — 

James and John. He and she. You and I. The rich and the 
poor. Virtue and vice. Heat and cold. France and Spain. The 
sun and the moon. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

610. A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, or described, 
in various ways ; as — 

1. By a noun in apposition — that is, a noun added in the same case, for the sake 

of explanation ; as, " Milton the poet was blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case; as, "Aaron's rod budded." 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " The works of Nature are beautiful." 

4. By an adjective word (that is, an article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par- 

ticiple) •, as, " A good name is better than riches." — " Your time is pre- 
cious." — "-Lost time can not be recovered." 

5. By a relative pronoun and its clause ; as, " He who does no good, does harm." 

6. By an infinitive mood ; as, " A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 

7. By a clause of a sentence ; as, "■ The fact that he icas a scholar was mani- 

fest." 

8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; as, " Several stars 

of less magnitude, which we had not observed before, now appeared." 

611. Though, for the reason assigned (192), the article is not properly a limiting 
word, yet, as it shows that the word is limited or modified in some way, it is here 
ranked among the modifiers (610-4). 

* The subject is here considered as compound, whether the predicate can be 
affirmed of each simple predicate or not. Thus we can say, " Good men are found 
in all countries, and bad men are found in all countries ;" but we can not say, " Two 
are five, and three are five." Still, the preceding examples — good men and bad 
men, and two and three — are equally considered as compound subjects, because 
they each consist of more than one object. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

EXERCISES. 

In the following propositions, point out the grammatical subject — the logical— 
and state how the grammatical subject is modified : — 

All men are not wise. Tall oaks from little acorns grow. Mil- 
ton's " Paradise Lost" is a work of great merit. Wisdom's ways 
are pleasantness. The love of money is the root of all evil. Evil 
communications corrupt good manners. The disposition to do good 
should be cherished. The walls of Babylon were fifteen miles long. 
The opinion that republics are ungrateful is disputed. Socrates the 
philosopher died by poison. Many of the writings of Plato are still 
extant. A desire to excel will stimulate to exertion. The effort to 
succeed will be crowned with success. All things come alike to all. 

Write sentences which have the subject modified by a noun in apposition — or in 
the possessive case — or by an adjunct — or by an adjective word — or by an infini- 
tive mood — or by a clause of a sentence, 

MODIFICATION OF THE MODIFYING WORDS. 

612. Modifying or limiting words may themselves be modified : — 
1. A noun, modifying another, may itself be modified in all the ways in which a 

noun as a grammatical subject is modified (610). 
2» An adjective, qualifying a noun, may itself be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct ; as, " Be not weary in well-doing, " 

2. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men often endure reproach/' 

3. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, and slow to speak," 
3. Again, an adverb may be modified — 

1. By an adjunct ; as, "Agreeably to Nature." 

2. By another adverb ; as, " Yours very sincerely." 

613. A modified grammatical subject, regarded as a complex idea, may itself be 
modified ; as, " The old black horse is dead/' — " The first two lines are good, the 
two last are bad." Here, old, first, two, each modify already modified subjects, 
viz., black horse, hvo lines, last (lines), 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns modified? 

the adjectives ? — the adverbs ? 

Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem. Jose- 
phus, the Jewish historian, relates the destruction of the temple. 
That picture is a tolerably good copy of the original. Pride, that 
never-failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. The author of Ju- 
nius' s letters is still unknown. Pride and envy are the first two of 
the seven sins— gluttony and libidinousness the last two. Truly 
great men are far above worldly pride. Few men can be said to be 
truly great in all things. That which is most difficult in perform- 
ance is most praiseworthy in execution. 



SYNTAX- — ANALYSIS. 129 

THE SUBJECT AN INFINITIVE, OR CLAUSE, ETC. 

614. The infinitive mood, with or without a subject, a participial 
noun, or a clause of a sentence, may be the subject of a verb ; as, 
** To lie is base."—- " For us to lie is base." — "Lying is base.-" — 
44 That man should lie is base." 

615. When the infinitive, with a subject in the objective case (872), is used as 
the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the particle for, as in the second 
example. 

616. When a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb and its subject, is 
used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the conjunctive that, as in 
the last example. 

617. When the infinitive, or a clause of a sentence, as the subject, follows the 
verb, the pronoun it precedes it, referring to that subject ; as, "It is base that men 
should lie." — "It is base to lie." — "It is base for us to lie" (246-4). 

618. The infinitive mood, the participle used as a noun, the infinitive with its 
subject in the objective case, introduced by for, or the clause of a sentence intro- 
duced by that, without modifying terms, may be considered as the grammatical 
subject. The same, modified like the verb in the predicate (630), may be consid- 
ered as the logical subject. When there are no modifications, the grammatical 
and the logical subject are the same. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate. In modified 
subjects, distinguish the grammatical and logical : — 

To be good is to be happy. To create creatures liable to wants, is 
to render them susceptible of enjoyment. To hear patiently, and to 
answer precisely, are the great perfections of conversation. To speak 
the truth is but a small part of our duty. It is a difficult thing to be 
idle. It is a wise provision of Providence that inferior animals have 
not the gift of speech. It is not intended that any individual should 
possess all advantages. That any individual should possess all ad- 
vantages is not intended. For a man who lives under subjection to 
assert his independence, is to be considered arrogant ; to offer no re- 
sistance, is to endure degradation. 



THE PREDICATE. 

619. — I. The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or 
logical, 

620. The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and cop- 
ula (597), not modified by other words. 

621. The attribute, which, together with the copula, forms the predicate, may be 
expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, a preposition with ita 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

regimen, and sometimes an adverb ; as, " James is a scholar" — " James is he — 
" James is diligent" — "James is learned" — " James is in health" — John is not so." 

622. The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive, or a dependent clause ; as, 
" To obey is to enjoy." — " The day is to be celebrated.". — " The order is, that we 
must go." 

623. The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words 
or phrases that modify it. Thus — 

" Nero was cruel to his subjects." — " Was cruel" is the grammatical, and "was 
cruel to his subjects," the logical predicate. Again : "' The Greeks took Troy by 
stratagem." — " Took" is the grammatical, and "took Troy by stratagem" is the 
logical predicate. 

624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms con- 
nected with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the same ; 
as, " Life is short.'' 1 — " The fire burns.' 91 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. In each, tell what 
is the grammatical predicate, and what is the logical predicate : — 

Time flies. The summer is past. The fields are covered with 
grain. Great is truth. Columbus discovered America. America 
was discovered by Columbus. A free press is the beginning of a 
free government. All governments should be founded on love. It 
is religion that gives order and liberty to the world. 

625. — II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or com- 
pound. 

626. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; 
as, " Life is short. 11 — " Time flies. 11 

627. A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predi- 
cates, affirmed of one subject; as, " Caesar came, and saw, and con- 
quered. 11 — " Truth is great and will prevail. 11 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. State whether the 
predicate is simple or compound. Distinguish the grammatical and logical : — 

Man is mortal. Wisdom is the principal thing. God is good and 
merciful. Honesty is praised and neglected. The heart is the best 
and the worst part of man. The rise of travel is to widen the sphere 
of observation, and to enable us to examine and judge of things for 
ourselves. Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. Talent is strength 
and subtlety of mind. Genius is mental inspiration and delicacy of 
feeling. Talent is the lion and the serpent — genius is the eagle and 
the dove. 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS 131 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

628. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different ways. 

629. When the attribute in the grammatical predicate is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a uoun or pronoun, limiting or describing the attribute ; as, " He is John 

the Baptist '." — " He is w^fflend.*' — " He is my father's friend." 

2. By an adjective or participle, limiting the attribute : as, " Solomon was a wise 

king." — " It is a bird singing." 

630. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is modified — 
•1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the attributive 

verb ; as, '•' JoTm reads Homer." — " I have heard him" 

2. By an adverb ; as, " John reads well" 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " They live in London." 

4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play." 

5. By a dependent clause ; as, " Plato taught that the soul is immortal." 

631. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the verb in the 
predicate (630). 

632. A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may be modified in both its 
subject and predicate as other propositions. 

633. All other modifying words may themselves be modified, as similar words 
are when modifying the subject (610). 

634. Several modifications are sometimes connected with the same predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — distinguish the gram- 
matical and logical predicate — show in what way the grammatical subject is mod- 
ified in the logical. 

According to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches his 
flames in the ocean. Sincerity and truth form the "basis of every 
virtue. The coach will leave the city in the morning at sunrise. 
The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. The atrocious 
crime of being a young man I shall attempt neither to palliate nor 
deny. Trusting in God implies a belief in him. His pretence was, 
that the storm prevented his attendance. His intention was to 
destroy the fleet. Time flies rapidly. I confess that I am in fault. 
William has determined to go. I wish that he may succeed in his 
enterprise. They said, " Thou hast saved our lives.' 1 

In the above, show in which sentences, and by what words, the modifiers of the 
predicate are themselves modified — in which the predicate has more than one 
modifier. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

635. A Compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
tences or propositions (590) connected together; as, "If time is 
money, wasting it must be prodigality." 

636. The propositions which make up a compound sentence are 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

called members, or clauses. In the preceding compound sentence, 
the members are, 4i Time is money," and " wasting it must be prod- 
igality." 

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

637. The clauses of a compound sentence are either independent 
or dependent ; sometimes called co-ordinate and subordinate. 

638. An independent clause is one that makes complete sense bv 
itself. 

639. A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in 
connexion with another clause. 

Thus, "We left when the sun set;" " We left," is an independent clause; it 
makes sense by itself ; "when the sun set," is a dependent clause; it does not 
make complete sense unless joined with the other clause. 

640. The dependent clause may often stand first; as, "When the sun set, we 
left." 

641. All the clauses of a sentence may be independent ; one of them always 
must be independent. 

642. The clause on which another depends is called the leading clause ; its sub- 
ject, the leading subject ; and its predicate, the leading predicate. But this leading 
clause itself may be dependent on another, which is a leading clause to it. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state which are simple, and which are compound. 
In the compound sentences point out the members or clauses : — 

Ignorance moves our pity, and that modifies our aversion. If we 
have not always time to read, we have always time to reflect. The 
poor is hated even of his own neighbor, but the rich hath many 
friends. The eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholding the 
evil and the good. Righteousness exalte th a nation, but sin is a 
reproach to any people. Pride goeth before destruction, and a 
haughty spirit before a fall. Death and life are in the power of the 
tongue. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. The slothful 
man saith, 4< There is a lion in the way/' When the righteous are 
in authority, the people rejoice. 

In the preceding simple sentences and members, point out the subject and predi- 
cate, with their respective modifications — -state what clauses are independent, what 
dependent. 

CONNEXION OF CLAUSES. 

643. Clauses of the same kind, that is, independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as and, or, nor, but, yet, and 
the like ; as, " The harvest is past, the summer is ended, and we 
are not saved," 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 133 

644. In such sentences the connective is often omitted, and generally when the 
sentence consists of more than two members, it is omitted in all except the last, as 
in the above example. 

645. The members of a compound sentence, containing one or 
more dependent clauses, are usually connected by relatives, conjunc- 
tions, or adverbs ; thus, 

Relative — - u That which can not be cured must be endured." 
Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor, that he may die rich. 11 
Adverb. — " We shall go when the cars go." 
In the first sentence, the relative not only stands as the subject of " can not he 

cured" but also connects its clause with the leading clause ; that connects the 

clauses in the second example : and when, in the third. 

646. When a clause connected by that can be regarded either as the subject or 
the object of the verb in the leading clause, it k in construction equivalent to a sub- 
stantive, and the whole may be regarded as a simple sentence, though in form 
really compound. Thus, in the sentence, " That men should lie is base," there are 
two clauses connected by that, constituting, of course, a compound sentence, and 
yet the dependent clause, " That men should lie" is really the subject of is, and 
equivalent to a noun. Thus viewed, the whole may be regarded as a simple sen- 
tence. So also, when the dependent clause is the object of the leading verb ; as, 
u I said that ye are gods ;" and also when either subject or predicate is modified 
by a relative clause. 

647. The connecting word is sometimes omitted; as, " This is the book I lost; 
I suppose you found it," for, " This is the book which I lost; I suppose that you 
found it." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following compound sentences, state which contain only independent 
clauses, and which contain dependent ones — point out the dependent clauses, and 
show on what leading clauses they depend — name the connecting words — state 
which may also be regarded as simple sentences (646). 

The weather was fine and the roads were excellent, but we were 
unfortunate in our companions. It is said that the Atlantic is three 
thousand miles broad. While the bridegroom tarried they all slum- 
bered. As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wan- 
dereth from his place. Beauty attracts admiration, as honor 
[attracts] applause. Talent is environed with many perils, and 
beauty [is environed] with many weaknesses. If we aim at 
nothing, we shall certainly achieve nothing. Time is ever advan- 
cing, but leaves behind it the traces of its flight. This we know, 
that our future depends on our present. Books which save the trou- 
ble of thinking are in great demand. After the new world had been 
discovered, Ferdinand made a decree that no lawyers should embark 
thither. That is best which is most rational. When I was a child, 
I thought as a child ; but when I became a man, I put away childish 
12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

things. I will come again and receive 3^ou to myself, that where I 
am there ye may be also* 

In the following sentences, what connecting words are omitted ? 

Pay me that thou owest. It is said he can not pay his debts. 
There is no doubt he is a man of integrity. I am sure we can never 
accomplish this without assistance. That is all you know. All 3^011 
can find is yours. Could we have foreseen this difficulty", we might 
have avoided it. I soon perceived I had still the power of motion. 
The author dreads the critic; the miser, the thief; the criminal, the 
judge. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

648. A compound sentence may sometimes be converted into a 
simple one, by abridging its d^endent clause. 

649. A dependent clause is frequently abridged by omitting the 
connecting word, and changing the verb of the predicate into a par- 
ticiple or infinitive. 

650. The participle in the abridged clause will then stand either with its sub- 
stantive in the case absolute (769), or as a modifier of the leading subject. Thus, 
Absolute — " When the boys have finished their lessons, we will play ;" abridged, 
" The boys having finished their lessons, we will play." As a modifier — " When 
we have finished our lessons we will play ;" abridged, " Having finished our les- 
sons we will play." Passively and absolutely — " When our work is finished we 
will play ;" abridged, " Oar work being finished, we will play." 

651. When the attribute, in the dependent clause, consists of a noun or pronoun 
in the nominative case after the verb as a copula, it remains in the same case in 
the abridged form; thus, " That he is & judge is of no consequence;" abridged, 
•' His being a judge is of no consequence." — •' I was not aware that he was a 
judge ;" abridged, " I was not aware of his being a judge" (799). 

652. The difference between these two modes of expression is this : Tn the full 
form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affirmed, ; in the abridged form, 
it is assumed. 

653. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the leading clause, 
it may often be changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, " I know that he is a 
scholar ;" abridged, " I know him to be a scholar." 

654. When, in such cases, the subject of the dependent clause is the same as the 
subject of the j)rincipal, it is omitted in the abridged form ; as, " I wished that 1 
might go ;" abridged, " I wished to go." 

655. When the subject of the dependent clause, connected by what, which, whom, 
where, when, how, and the like, and relating to something yet future, is the same 
as that of the independent one, it is sometimes abridged by retaining the connecting 
word, and omitting the subject before the infinitive ; as, " I know not what I shall 
do;" abridged, "I know not what to do." In this way are to he analyzed and 
explained such phrases as, " Where to go," "when to read," "how to do," " whom 
to send," &c. 

656. A dependent clause may often be abridged by substituting an equivalent 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 135 

qualifying word, or an adjunct ; as, " The man who is honest will be respected ;" 
abridged. " The honest man will be respected." — " When the sun set we returned j" 
abridged, " At sunset we returned." 

657. Several dependent clauses may be variously connected with the same lead- 
ing clause, and abridged in the same manner as above ; as. " When they arrived 
at the station, they were informed that the cars had passed, an hour before j" 
abridged, " Having arrived [or, on arriving] at the station, they were informed of 
the cars having passed an hour before." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Abridge such propositions in the preceding exercises as can be abridged. 

2. Extend the following abridged simple sentences into compound sentences. 

Having doubled Cafe Horn, we sailed in a direct course for Cali- 
fornia. What to do I know not. No one can tell us where to go, 
or how to do. The war being at an e^l, the troops w T ere disbanded. 
At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss where to go. The 
industrious and capable need fear no want. A good name is the 
richest possession we have while living, and the best legacy we leave 
behind us when dead. Of his having been successful, we have full 
assurance. Of his being successful now there is reason to doubt. 
We hold these principles to be self-evident. 

658. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

State whether the sentence is simple or compound. 

If simple, name the logical subject, and the logical predicate. 

Name the grammatical subject. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the 

logical. 
Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is 

modified. 
Name the grammatical predicate. 
Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the 

logical. 
Show by what modifying words or phrases, if any, each modify- 
ing word is modified. 
If compound, mention the members or clauses. 
State whether they are independent or dependent. 
Show how the members are connected. 

Anatyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its sub- 
ject, predicate, &c, as above. 
In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to supply words left out by 
ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to the relative what, and the compound rela- 
tives, whoever, whosoever, ichatever, whatsoever ; making also the change which is 
necessary in the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is supplied (266). 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



659. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

1. "God is good." 

This is a simple sentence, because it contains a subject and a predicate. 

God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality is affirmed. 

7s good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its subject. Is is 
the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 

In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logi- 
cal, because they are not modified by other words (606 and 624). 

Or, more briefly, thus, 

The logical subject is God. 

The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, and good the 
attribute. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

2. " The sun and moon stood still." 

This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject. 

The logical subject is The sun and moon. 

The logical predicate is stood stilt 

The grammatical subject is sun and moon, compound, and connected by and, 

both modified by the (711). 
The grammatical predicate is stood, modified by still, an adverb, expressing 

manner. 

3. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 
This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is The fear of the Lord. 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. 

The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct, of the Lord, and 

shown to be limited by the article the (611). 
The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or copula, 

and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of wisdom, and 

shown to be limited by the. 

4. "A good man does what [== that which] is right, from principle." 
This is a compound sentence, containing one leading, and one dependent clause, 

connected by which. 

The independent clause is A good man does that from principle. 

The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that in the leading 
clause, the antecedent to which, the connecting word. 

In the first or leading clause — 

The logical subject is A good m&n. 

The logical predicate is does that from principle. 

The grammatical predicate is man, limited by good, and shown to be limited 
by the. 

The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object, that, and the adjunct 
from principle ; that is modified by the relative clause, 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 137 

In the second, or dependent clause — 

The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the antecedent that, 

and restricts it. 
The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, and right is 

the attribute. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

5. " There is nothing which all mankind venerate and admire so 

much as simple truth/* 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent clause, and two 
dependent clauses. 

The independent clause is There is nothing. 

The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate and admire so much, 
connected to the preceding by which. 

The second dependent clause, connected by m as to the preceding, as its leading 
member, is, [they venerate and admire] simple truth. 
In \he first, or independent proposition — 
The logical subject is nothing = not any thing. 
The logical predicate is is. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. There is an 

introductory expletive, used in such sentences when the subject follows the verb. 
In the second proposition, dependent on the first — 
The logical subject is all mankind. 

The logical predicate is venerate and admire which so much. 
The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by all. 
The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, compound, connected by 

and, and modified by their object, ichich, which also connects its clause with 

its antecedent, thing, for the purpose of restricting it, and by the adverbial 

phrase, so much. 
In the third proposition, connected with the second by as — 
The logical subject is they, understood (for all mankind). 
The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth. 
The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the preceding clause. 
The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, understood, modified by 

their object, truth, and that is qualified by the adjective, simple. 

6. " Conversation makes a man wax wiser than himself, and that 
more by an hour's discourse than by a day's meditation." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent clauses, connected 
by and, each of which has its own dependent clause. 

The first independent clause is Conversation makes a man [to] wax wiser. Its 
dependent clause is himself [is], connected by than. 

The second independent clause is [it does] that more by an hour's discourse. 
Its dependent clause is [it does] by a day's meditation, connected by than. 

(The words supplied are included in brackets.) 

In the first independent clause — 

The logical subject is conversation. 

The logical predicate is makes a man [to] wax wiser. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

12* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object, man, which is also 
the subject of the verb to wax (872). It is shown to be used indefinitely by a, 
and is qualified by the predicative adjective wiser. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is himself (in the nominative). 

The logical predicate is is (understood). 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

In the second independent proposition connected to the first by and— 

The logical subject is it understood (for conversation). 

The logical predicate is it does that more by an hour's discourse. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is modified by its object, 
^^representing the phrase makes a man wax wiser ; also by the adverb 
more, and the adjunct by discourse ; and discourse is limited by hour's, which 
again is shown to be indefinitely the article an. 

In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — 

The logical subject is it (conversation) understood. 

The logical predicate is [does] by a day's meditation. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is does (understood, as before), modified by the ad- 
junct by meditation — meditation is limited by days, and that is shown to be 
indefinite by the article a. 

7. " The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords 
a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipo- 
tent hand by which it was created." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one independent clause, and two de- 
pendent clauses. 

The independent clause is The minutest plant or animal affords a thousand 
wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand. 

The first dependent clause is [it is] attentively examined, connected as a condi- 
tion by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges. 

The second dependent clause is by which it was created, connected also by which 
to hand in order to describe it 

In the independent clause — 

The logical subject is The minutest 'plant or animal. 

The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire 
and adore the Omnipotent hand. 

The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound ; its parts are connected 
by or as alternates (569), and both modified by minutest (704). 

The grammatical predicate is affords antl obliges, compound ; its parts are con- 
nected by and. Affords is modified by its object, wonders, which is limited 
by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object, us, the infinitives to admire 
and to adore, of which us is also the subject, and these infinitives are modified 
by their object, hand, which is qualified and described by Omnipotent, and 
the relative clause by which it was created. The verbs affords and obliges 
are modified also by the conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined. 

In the first dependent clause— 

The logical subject is it, referring to plant or anvmaL 



SYNTAX ANALYSIS. 139 

The logical predicate is is attentively examined. 

The grammatical subject is it. 

The grammatical predicate is is examined. It is modified by the adverb of 

maimer, attentively. 
In the second dependent clause — 
The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. 
The logical predicate is was created by which. 
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 
The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct, by 

which, referring to hand, its antecedent. 

The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so much room 
on paper, may be accomplished orally with great rapidity. Let this 
be done in the following — 

EXERCISES. 

In the same way, analyze the following sentences : — 

Knowledge is power. Truth is the basis of honor : It is the be- 
ginning of virtue : It liveth and conquereth for ever. Time is a gift 
bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. The heart and the tongue 
are the best and the worst parts of man. 

Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. 

Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the mind. 

He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive. 

True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and, after life, 
a better existence. 

A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a greater 
brings us back to it again. 

What we know is nothing, but what we are*ignorant of is immense. 

Cold water is a warm friend, and strong water is a powerful enemy 
to mankind. 

Many men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but great 
and glorious in life and death. 

To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great perfec- 
tions of conversation. 

Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions which 
save the labor of working, are in universal demand. 

Solon compared the people to the sea, and orators and counsellors 
to the winds f for (he said) that the sea would be calm and quiet if 
the winds did not trouble it. 

Some cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect philoso- 
phers in practice ; as others advocate religion, who are nevertheless 
indifferently religious. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

660. Words are arranged in sentences, according to 
certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax. 

661. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (or 
subject), expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
have a substantive (109), expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative or subject has its own verb, expressed or un- 
derstood. 

4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or 
participles) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive de- 
noting the object possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the 
active voice, or a preposition, or denotes circumstances of weight, 
measure, price, &c. (828). 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, adjective, or noun. 
The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the Rules of Syntax. 

PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

662. The Rules s of Syntax may all be referred to three 
heads, viz., Concord, or agreement, Government, and Posi- 
tion. 

663. Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

664. Government is the power which one word has 
in determining the mood, tense, or case, of another word. 
The word governed by another word is called its regimen. 

665. Position means the place which a word occupies 
in relation to other words in a sentence. 

666. In the English language, which has but few inflections, the 
meaning of a sentence often depends much on the position of the 
words of which it consists. 



SYNTAX APPOSITION. 141 



SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 

667. Rule I. — Substantives, denoting the same person 

or thing, agree in case ; as — 

44 Cicero the orator ■."—** J, Paul, have written it."— 44 We, the peo- 
ple, of the United States." — 44 Ye woods and wilds." — " This was 
said to us men." — ' 4 The river Thames."— "Jane and Eliza, Mary's 
cousins." — " The chief of the princes, he who defied the enemy," &c. 
— 44 That was related of Dr. West, him who translated Pindar." 

668. The word annexed is said to be in apposition with the other, and is added 
to express some attribute, description, or appellation, belonging to it. The words 
so related must always be in the same member of the sentence — that is, both in the 
subject, or both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another is not in 
apposition with it, though denoting the same thing. 

The substantive in apposition commonly stands last ; sometimes first. 

669. Two or more words forming one complex name, or a name and a title pre- 
fixed, though really in apposition, are properly inflected and parsed as one word ; 
as, ''George Washington" — "General Washington's tent." In such cases, the 
sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last (848), and sometimes also in other ' 
cases; as, " We arrived at our friend Wilson's plantation." 

For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see (161). 

670. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence, and a sentence or 
infinitive mood sometimes in apposition with a noun ; as, " The weather forbids 
walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both." — " The promise, that he should be the 
heir of the world, was given to Abraham." — "Delightful task, to rear the tender 
thought !" (867). 

671. A plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or more substan- 
tives singular, to combine and give them emphasis ; as, " Time, labor, money, all 
were lost." Sometimes the same substantive is repeated for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, " Cisterns, broken cisterns." 

672. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plural substan- 
tive ; as, " They went each of them on his way. ' — " They all went, some one way, 
and some another." In the construction of a sentence, the distributive word is 
sometimes omitted ; as, " They [interrogative pronouns] do not relate [each] to a 
preceding noun." 

673. Of this character are such expressions as the following : " They stood in 
each other's way" — that is, they stood each in the other's way. — 4 ' They love one 
another" — that is, they love, one (loves) an other (311). 

674. A substantive is sometimes connected with another in a sort of apposition 
by the word as, meaning in the condition of in the capacity of; thus, " Cicero, as 
an orator, was bold — as a soldier, he was timid." But here — the reverse of the 
former case (669)— the substantive in apposition with another in the possessive case, 
or with a possessive pronoun, is without the sign, while the other has it ; as, " John's 
reputation as an author was great — his fame as an artist still greater." 

675. In designating time and place, instead of a noun in apposition, a preposition 



1*2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with its case is often used ; as, " The month of August."— " The state of Ohio."— 
" The city of New York." 

Throughout the exercises in syntax — first, correct the 
errors ; secondly, analyze orally the sentences so corrected ; 
thirdly, parse any word etymologically ; and last, parse 
syntactically the word or words to which the rule refers. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences., what words are in apposition, and to what ? In 
what case do they agree ? Give the rule :— 

Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Byron the 
poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. Cole- 
ridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative poet, was the friend 
of Wordsworth. My brother William's estate has been sold. 
" And on the palace floor a lifeless corse she lay." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

As the nominative and the objective case in nouns are alike in English, there is 
no liability to error under this rule, except in the case of pronouns. 

Please give that book to my brother William, he who stands by 
the window. The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned 
before. Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? 
I speak of Virgil, he who wrote the ^neid. 



AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

676. Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies 
the substantive to which it belongs ; as, " A good man." 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the singu- 
lar: adjectives denoting more than one, qualify nouns in 
the plural; as, " This man."— " These men."— •" Six feet." 

677. Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals 'first, second, third, 
&c. (206), last—this, that— one, each, every, either, neither, much, and 
its comparative more— all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. 

678. When any of these is joined with a plural noun, the whole is regarded as 
one aggregate ; as, " The first two weeks"—" Every ten miles"—" The last/owr 
hues"—" The last days of summer," &c. But the verb after such subjects is usu- 
ally plural. 

679. In such expressions, the cardinal number, if small, may precede the words 



SYNTAX ADJECTIVES. 



143 



first and last, but not the other ordinals ; as, " The two first weeks'' — " The four 
last lines" (705-3), meaning the two weeks at the beginning, or preceding all the 
rest — the four lines at the end, or succeeding all tlie rest. 

680. Two or more adjectives, expressing qualities that belong each to a different 
object of the same name, and that name expressed only with the last, should have 
an article before each; as, " The red and the white rose"— that is, two roses, the 
one red and the other white. So " The first and the second page" — '•' The first and 
the second verse" — " The Old and the New World." It has become common, 
however, even with good writers, to drop the second article, and change the sin- 
gular into the plural, to express the same idea: thus. " The first and second pages" 
— " The first and second verses," &c. This mode of expression, though incorrect 
in itself, is less stiff and formal than the other. (See App. VII.) When adjectives 
denoting one are connected by or, nor, &c, the noun must be singular. 

681. Adjectives denoting more than one. are all cardinal numbers above one; 
as, two, three, Sec— few, many, with its comparative more — all, denoting number, 
both, several, and enow. This last is nearly obsolete. 

682. Adjectives without a substantive expressed are often used as nouns ; as, 
" The+ich and the poor meet together" (201). This is especially common with all 
adjective pronouns except the possessive ; as, ' ; Of books, some are good, some are 
bad." — ''All things come alike to all 1 ' (289). 

683. Adjectives are sometimes used indefinitely after an infinitive or participle, 
without reference to any particular substantive, to express an abstract idea ; as, 
" To be good is to be happy" — " Being good is better than being great." 

684. When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its substantive in 
the subject ; as, " God is good, he is also just' ' — M To do good to others is profitable 
to ourselves." — " Thai men should lie, is base." 

685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not considered 
simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by the action of the connecting 
verb, which, in that case, may be regarded as a strengthened or modified copula *, 
as, " That type stands low." — " This fruit tastes bitter." — " The wind blows cold." 
— " The door is painted green." — " John grows tall." — " Milk rums sour." — " Clay 
burns white." — " Down feels soft" 

686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly, called adverbial 
adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead of the adjective itf 
such expressions, the distinction should be carefully marked. Thus — 

The adverb expresses the manner of the act. 

The adjective expresses the condition, or state of the subject. 
Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding adjunct, 
the adverb should be used ; as, " The stream flows rapidly" (in a rapid manner). 
Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb flows. But when the meaning can be 
expressed nearly by substituting the verb to be or to become as a copula, the adjec- 
tive should be used ; as, " The stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is further 
illustrated by the following examples, viz. : — 

ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. 

John grows [becomes] old. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner] . 

She looks [is] cold. She looks coldly [in a cold manner] on him. 

He feels [is] warm. He feels warmly [in a warm manner] the insult. 

The eagle flies [is] high. The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift manner.] 

The apple tastes [is] sweet. Mary sings sweetly [in a sweet manner.] 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

687. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; thus, "miserable 
poor," should be, "miserably poor"— " sings elegant," should be, 
44 sings elegantly." So also, adverbs should not be used as adjec- 
tives ; thus, " He arrived safely ," should be, " He arrived safe" 

688. This here, that there, them books, are vulgarises, for this, that, those books. 

689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective* and noun together as one 
compound term; as, '• A venerable old man" — H The best black tea." 

690. Sometimes an adjective modifies the meaning of another adjective; as, 
" red-hot iron" — ■" a bright-red color." 

691. Several adjectives frequently qualify the same substantive; as, "A large, 
strong, black, horse." 

This, that— these, those. 
692. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to the 
last-mentioned, that to the first ; as, " Virtue and vice are opposite 
qualities ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it." 

693. Former and latter are used in the same way (304). So also the one, the 
other, referring to words in the singular. 

694. When no contrast is expressed, this refers to things near, or just mentioned, 
and that to things more remote, or formerly mentioned. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

695. When one object is compared with one other of the same 
class, or with more than one of a different class, individually, or in 
the aggregate, the comparative is used ; as, " James is the weaker 
of the two" — "He is taller than his father" — " He is taller than 
any of his brothers." 

696. Sometimes however, when two objects of the same class are compared, 
the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal ; as, " James is the 
weakest of the two." 

697. When one object is compared with more than one of the 
same class, the superlative is used, and commonly has the prefixed 
(713) ; as, " John is the tallest amongst us" — " He is the best scholar 
in a class of ten" — '• He is the most diligent of them all." 

698. In the use of the comparative and superlative, when more than two objects 
are compared, the following distinction should be carefully observed, viz. : — 

699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of comparison must always 
exclude tbe former; thus, " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters." — ' Russia 
is larger than any other country in Europe." — " China has a greater population 
than any nation of Europe," or, " than any other nation on the globe." Thus used, 
the comparative requires than after it (963-2). 

700. When the superlative is used, the latter term of comparison must always 
include the former; as, " Russia is the largest country in Europe." — " China has 
the greatest population of any nation on the globe." 

701 . Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 



SYNTAX ADJECTIVES. 146 

44 James is more taller than John" — omit more — "He is the most 
wisest of the three" — omit most. 

702. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good authority; 
as, " Lesser Asia ; " — '• Every lesser thing.'" — N. Y. Review. — " Like lesser streams." 
— Coleridge. 

703. Adjectives, not admitting comparison (223), should not be compared, nor con- 
nected with comparative words, such as so, as, and the like. Thus, more univer- 
sal, so universal, as universal, should be more general, so general, as general; 
and so of similar words. 

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES. 

704. An adjective is commonly placed before its substantive ; as, 
44 A good man" — " A virtuous woman." 

1. Adjectives should be placed as near as possible to their substantives, and so 
that it may be certain to what noun they belong; thus, " A new pair of shoes" — 
"A fine field of corn" — lt A good glass of wine.'' should be, "A pair of new 
shoes" — ; * A field of fine corn" — " A glass of good wine" — because the adjectives 
qualify shoes, corn, wine, and not pair, field, glass. When ambiguity can not 
otherwise be avoided, the use of the hyphen might be resorted to with advantage; 
thus, "A good-maiis coat" — " A good mati's-coal." 

2. When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, connected by and, it is 
usually expressed before the first, and understood to the rest ; as, " A man of great 
wisdom and moderation.'' 

3. It has been disputed whether the numerals, two, three, four, &c, should be 
placed before the words first and last, or after them, when used to indicate the 
beginning and the end of a series. On this point, with small numbers, usage is 
nearly equally divided, and as the matter now stands, in some cases the one form 
seems to be preferable, and in some, the other. In this construction, as in some 
others where no impropriety is involved, euphony and taste seem to govern. This 
much is certain — neither form can be justly condemned, on the ground of either 
authority or propriety. — See App. VIII. 

705. An adjective is placed after its substantive — 

1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun ; as " We saw him faint and tceary." 

2. When other words depend on the adjective ; as, " A man sick of the palsy" 

— " A pole ten feet long." 

3. When the quality results from the action expressed by a verb ; as, " Extrav- 

agance makes a man poor" — "Virtue makes a poor man happy." 

4. When the adjective is predicated of the substantive ; as, " God is good" — 

" We are happy" — " He who is good is happy'' — " He looks feeble" — 
" Ho play is pleasant" — " That he should fail is strange." 
706. In many cases, the adjective may stand either before or after its substantive, 
and sometimes, especially in poetry, and in connexion with an infinitive or partici- 
ple, at a considerable distance from it. In all these, the variety is so great that no 
rules can provide for them. Care, however, should be taken to place the adjective 
where its relation to the substantive will be clear and natural, and its meaning 
effective. 

13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the change : — 
These kind of books can hardly be got. I have not been from 
home this ten days. We walked two mile in half an hour. I 
ordered six ton of coal, and these makes the third that has been 
delivered. This lake is six fathom deep. The garden wall is five 
rod long ; I measured it with a ten-foot pole. Twenty heads of 
cattle passed along the road. It is said that a fleet of six sails has 
just entered the bay. That three pair of gloves cost twelve shilling. 
— (159-2) A man who is prudent and industrious, will, by that 
means, increase his fortune. Charles formed expensive habits, and 
by those means became poor. If you are fond of those sort of things 
you may have them. — (680) There was a blot on the first or sec- 
ond pages. The first and second verse are better than the third and 
fourth. 

(687) Come quick and do not hinder us. Time passes swift* 
though it appears to move slow. We got home safely before dark, 
and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. The boat 
glides smooth over the lake. Magnesia feels smoothly. Open the 
door widely. The door is painted greenly. 

(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is worse than all. 
Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost. 

(692) « For beast and bird ; 
These to their grassy couch, those to their nests, repair." 

" Night's shadows hence, from thence the morning's shine ; 
That bright, this dark, this earthly, that divine." 

(694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still 
involved in mystery. This vessel, of which you spoke yesterday, 
sailed in the evening. 

(698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors. 
China has a greater population than any nation on earth. That ship 
is larger than any of its class. There is more gold in California than 
in any part of North America. The birds of Brazil are more beau- 
tiful than any in South America. Philadelphia is the most regular 
of any city in Europe. Israel loved Joseph more than all his 
children. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 
,-(*701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find. The nightin 
gale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. A worser evil yet 
awaits us. The rumor has not spread so universally as we supposed. 
Draw that line more perpendicular. This figure is a more perfect 
circle than that is. He is far from being so perfect as he thinks he is. 



SYNTAX ARTICLE. 147 



THE ARTICLE AND ITS NOUN. 

707. Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before 
common nouns in the singular number, when used indefi- 
nitely ; as, "A man" — "An apple;" that is, "any 
man" — "any apple." 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, either 
singular or plural, when used definitely; as, " The sun 
rises" — " The city of New York." 

[See Etymology of the Article 183.] 
708. A common noun, in the singular number, without an article 
or limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense ; as, '■''Man is 
mortal 1 ' — ''•Anger is a short madness." 

709. The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particularize a species or 
class, without specifying any individual under it : as, the oak, the rose, the horse, 
the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, horse, or raven, but the class, 
so called, in a general sense. In such cases, whether the noun is used to denote a 
class or an individual, can be determined only by the sense, as in the following 
examples : " The oak produces acorns" — " The oak was struck by lightning." — 
" The horse is a noble animal" — " The horse ran away." — " The lion shall eat 
straw like the ox" — " The lion tore the ox in pieces." — " The night is the time for 
repose" — *' The night was dark." 

710. Every article belongs to a noun, expressed or understood, 
except as in (714 and 715). 

711. When several nouns are combined in the same construction, the article is 
commonly expressed with the first, and understood with the rest; as, " The men, 
women, and children, are expected." But when emphasis, or a different form of 
the article, is required, the article is prefixed to each; as, " The men, the women, 
and the children, are expected" — " A horse and an ass." 

712. But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunctively con- 
nected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, or the women, or the children, 
are expected." 

713. The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun ; as, '• The right- 
eous is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before adjectives in the superla- 
tive degree, when comparison is implied (213) ; as, " Gold is the most precious of 
the metals." But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either without 
an article, or has a or an preceding it ; as,. " A most excellent man." 

714. The is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adverbs in the com- 
parative degree ; as, " The higher the mountain, the colder its top" — " The faster 
he goes, the sooner he stops." Thus used, it performs the function of an adverb. 

715. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, commonly has the article 
the before it; as, ''Alexander the Great" — "Charles the Fifth." This maybe 
considered a« inverted for " The great Alexander," " The fifth Charles ;" or, by 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ellipsis, for " Alexander, the gieat [conqueror]," " Charles, the fifth [emperor of the 
name]." 

716. A or anis sometimes put before the adjectives few, hundred, thousand, fol- 
lowed by a plural noun; as, "A few men"— " A hundred acres" — "A thousand 
miles." In such cases, the adjective and noun may be considered as a compound 
term, expressing one aggregate, and having the construction of a collective noun 
(790). Or the adjective may be regarded as a collective noun (207), and the noun 
following governed by of understood ; as, Ki A few [of] men" — "A hundred [of] 
acres," &c. This is evidently the construction of larger numbers ; thus, we never 
say, " A million dollars," but, " A million of dollars." 

717. When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, the article of the 
noun is put with the first adjective, but not with the rest ; as, " A red and white 
rose," that is, one rose, partly red and partly white. But, 

718. When two or more adjectives belong each to a different object of the same 
name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective ; as, " A red and a white 
rose"= " A red rose and a white rose," that is, two roses, one red and the other 
white. 

719. The same remark applies to the demonstrative, that; as, " That great and 
good man" =" That great and that good man." 

720. So also when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both designate the same 
person, the article precedes the first only. If they designate different persons, the 
article must precede each ; thus, " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," means 
one man, who is both a bookseller and a stationer ; but, " Johnson the bookseller* 
and the stationer," means two men, one a bookseller, named Johnson, and the other 
a stationer, not named. 

721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the same per- 
son, or thing, the last must want the article ; as, " He is a better soldier than states- 
man." But when they refer to different persons, the last must have the article ; as, 
" He is a better soldier than a statesman [would be]." 

722. The article a, before the adjectives few and little, renders the meaning posi- 
tive; as, "A few men can do that" — " He deserves a little credit." But without 
the article the meaning is negative; as, "Few men can do that" — " He deserves 
little credit." 

723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and some other writings of that time, the 
is often used before which ; as, " That worthy name by the which ye are called" — 
" The which when I had seen." — Bunyan. 

724. The article is generally omitted before proper names, abstract nouns, and 
names of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, &c, when not restricted, and such other nouns 
as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to require it ; as, " Christmas is in 
December 11 — " Logic and mathematics are important studies" — " Truth is mighty." 
Still certain proper names, and names used in a certain way, have the article pre- 
fixed ; as, " The Alps'' — " The Rhine" — " The Azores" — " The immortal Wash- 
ington" — " He was a Johnson, of the family of the Johnsons, in England." 

POSITION OF THE ARTICLE. 

725. The article is commonly placed before its noun; as, "A 
man" — " The man." 

726. If the noun is qualified by an adjective before it, the article precedes the 
adjective; as, " A good man." 



SYNTAX ARTICLE. 149 

I, swh, many, what, both; and all 
adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, " An the men" — " Such a man" — 
" Many a. man" — " What a man" — " Both the men" — " Too great a man" — " So 
great a man" — " As great a man*' — " How great a man." 

728. When the adjective follows the noun, not as an epithet, the article remains 
before the noun, and the adjective is without it; as, " A man destitute of principle 
should not be trusted." For an adjective as an epithet, see (715) above. 

Note. — The use of the article is so varied, that the best general rule is to study 
what the sense requires, both as to its proper use and position. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give a reason for so 
doing : — 

(707-1 and 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a spring. 
A life of the modern soldier is ill represented by heroic fiction. Earth 
existed at first in the state of chaos. An age of chivalry is gone. A 
crowd at the door was so great that we could not enter. The large 
number of foreigners was present. 

(708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four ele- 
ments of the philosophers. Reason was given to a man to control his 
passions. A man was made to mourn. The gold is corrupting. The 
silver is a precious metal. 

(709) Horse is a noble animal. A lion is generous, a cat is treach- 
erous, a dog is faithful. A horse-leech cries, " Give, give," and a 
grave is never satisfied. The war has means of destruction more 
dreadful than a cannon or a sword. 

(712) Neither the man nor boy was to blame. A man may be a 
mechanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and respected; but 
idler or spendthrift can never be either. 

(713) We should ever pay attention to graceful and becoming. The 
memory of just is blessed ; but the name of wicked shall rot. Best 
men are often those who say least. Your friend is a man of the most 
brilliant talents. Keep good and throw bad away. 

(715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty ; Pliny younger 
for gentleness and benignity. Peter Hermit proposed his plan for 
recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin II. The father of William 
Cowper, poet, was chaplain to George II. 

(717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the 
tower. A beautiful stream flows between the old and new mansion. 
A hot and cold spring were found in the same neighborhood. The 
young and old man seem to be on good terms. The first and second 
book are difficult. Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweller made 
one of the party. 

13* 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(721) A man may be A better soldier than a logician. There is 
much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a master. 
He is not so good a poet as an historian. 

(722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business. A 
little respect should be paid to those who deserve none. Let the 
damsel abide with us few days. Are not my days a few ? A few 
men of his age enjoy so good health. 



A PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT. 

729. Rule IV. — Pronouns agree with the words for 
which they stand in gender, number, and person; as, " All 
that a man hath will he give for his life." — " A tree is known 
by its fruit." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

730. Rule 1. — When a pronoun refers to two or 7nore 
words taken together, and of different persons, it becomes plu- 
ral, and prefers the first person to the second, and the second 
to the third; as, " John and you and J will do our duty." 

Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words in 
the singular taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it 
must be singular ; as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as 
it is moved." 

Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, 
the pronoun must be plural also ; as, " Neither he nor they 
trouble themselves." 

731. Nouns are taken together when connected by and — sepa- 
rately when connected by or or nor, as above ; also after each, every, 
no, though connected by and ; as, " Each book and each paper is in 
its place." 

732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately, they can 
not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun, common gender, 
except by a clumsy repetition of pronouns of the corresponding genders; thus, "If 
any man or woman shall violate his or her pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." — 
The use of the plural pronoun in such cases, though sometimes used, is improper; 
as, '' If any man or woman shall violate their pledge," &c. 

733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the common gen- 
der, (126), taken in a general sense, are commonly masculine; as, "A parent 
should love his child" — " Every person has his faults." — " No one should commend 



SYNTAX PRONOUNS. 151 

himself." The want of a singular personal pronoun, common gender, is felt also 
in this construction. f 

734. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, ex- 
pressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular ; but 
when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should be 
plural ; as, " The army proceeded on its march." — " The court were 
divided in their opinions." 

735. A singular noun after the phrase " many a," may take a pronoun in the 
plural, but never in the same clause ; as — 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night." — JV. Scoti. 

736. The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the beginning of a sentence in- 
stead of the word person or persons ; as, "He who" — " They who" — also " Those 
who" — for " The person or persons who." 

737. Pronouns representing nouns personified (129), take the gender of the noun 
as a person ; as, " Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne." But those repre- 
senting nouns taken metaphorically agree with them in their litei^al sense ; as, 
11 Pitt was the pillar which in its strength upheld the state." 

738. It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the same person by 
pronouns of different numbers; as, " I labored long to make thee happy, and now 
you reward me by ingratitude." It should be either " to make you happy," or 
•• thou rewardest" (545). 

739. In the use of pronouns, when it would be uncertain to which of two or more 
antecedent words a pronoun refers, the ambiguity may be avoided by repeating 
the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by changing the fonn of the sentence ; 
thus, " When we see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, we are led to 
consider its cause" — better, " the cause of that variety" 

POSITION OF PRONOUNS. 

740. The first and the second personal pronouns commonly stand instead of 
nouns implied, but not expressed. Possessive pronouns, and the pronouns of the 
third person, are commonly placed after the words to which they refer; but some- 
times this order, especially in poetry, is reversed. 

741. When words of different persons come together, the usual order of arrange- 
ment, in English, is to place the second person before the third, and the first person 
last ; as, " You and he and / are sent for." — " This matter concerns you or him or 
me." 

In connexion with these rules and observations, see also the observations on gen- 
der (128-134), on number (155-160), and on personal pronouns (240-253). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In each sentence, state the words to which the pronouns refer ; change the pro- 
nouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the change : — 

(729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; if 
they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. Ex- 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. A man's recol- 
lections of the past regulate their anticipations of the future. Let 
every boy answer for themselves. Each of us had more than we 
wanted. Every one of you should attend to your own business (301). 

(730-1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his counte- 
nance. Both cold and heat have its extremes. You and your friend 
should take care of themselves. You and I must be diligent in your 
studies. 

(730-2) John or James will favor us with their company. One 
or other must relinquish their claim. Neither wealth nor honor con- 
fers happiness on their votaries. — (731) Every plant and every flower 
proclaims their Maker's praise. Each day and each hour brings their 
changes. Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. No 
thought, no word, no action, can escape in the judgment, whether 
they be good or evil. 

(732) Let every man and every woman strive to do their best. If 
any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. 
No lady or gentleman would do a thing so unworthy of them. 

(733) One should not think too highly of themselves. A teacher 
should always consult the interest of her pupils. A parent's care for 
her children is not always requited. Every one should consider their' 
own frailties. Let each esteem others better than herself. 

(734) The assembly held their meetings in the evening. The 
court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. The regiment was greatly 
reduced in their number. Society is not always answerable for the 
conduct of their members. The committee were divided in its opin- 
ions. The public are informed that its interests are secured. 

(737) The earth is my mother ; I will recline on its bosom. That 
freedom, in its fearless flight, may here announce its glorious reign. 
Policy keeps coining truth in its mints, such truth as it can tolerate, 
and every die except its own it breaks and casts away. As time 
advances, it leaves behind him the traces of its flight. 

(738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man. Care 
for thyself, if you would have others to care for thee. If thou wert 
not my superior, I would reprove you. If thou forget thy friend, can 
you expect that your friend will remember thee ? 

(739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his 
enemy. John gave his friend a present which he highly valued. 

(741) I and my father were invited. An invitation was sent to 
me and George. You and I and James were to be of the party ; but 
neither I nor you nor he can go. 



SYNTAX RELATIVE. 153 



THE RELATIVE AND ITS ANTECEDENT. 

742. Rule V. — -The relative agrees with its antecedent 
in number and person ; as, " Thou who speakest." — " The 
book which was lost." 

[See Etymology. 255, &c] 

743. The number of the relative can be determined only from the number of 
the antecedent. 

744. Who is applied to persons or things personified ; as, "The 
man who" — " The fox who had never seen a lion." 

745. Which is applied to things and inferior animals — sometimes 
to children— to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity — and 
also to persons in asking questions. 

746. In the translation of the Bible, which is applied to persons ; as, " Our Father 
ichich art in heaven." 

747., Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the character, or the 
name merely as a word, is referred to ; as, " He is a good writer, which is all he 
professes to be." — " That was the work of Herod, which is but another name for 
cruelty." 

748. That, as a relative, is used after who or which — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words very, same, and all, 

— often after no, some, and any — and generally in restrictive clauses (268). 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, " The man and 

the horse that we saw." 

3. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pronouns ; as, " Who 

that knew him could think so V — " I that speak in righteousness.''' 

4. Generally when the propriety of who or ichich is doubtful; as, "The little 

child that was placed in the midst." 

749. The relatives who or which and that should not be mixed in a series of rela- 
tive clauses having the same antecedent. Thus it is improper lo say, " The man 
that met us and whom we saw." It should be, " who met us," or '•' that we saw." 

750. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by an adjective, some- 
times to the infinitive. But this construction is rare. See examples (256). 

751. The relative in the objective case is often omitted; as, " Here is the book 
I promised you." The relative in the nominative is hardly ever omitted except in 
poetry; as — 

"In this, 'tis God — directs, in that, 'tis man." 

752. The antecedent is omitted before what (266), and generally before the com- 
pound relatives (273). It is sometimes understood, especially in poetry ; as — 

" [He] who lives to Nature, rarely can be poor." 

753. What should not be used for the conjunction that. Thus, *' I can not be- 
lieve but what it is so," should be, " but that it is so." Also the demonstrative that 
should not be used for the relative what; as, "We speak that we do know," 
better, " what we do know." 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



POSITION OF THE RELATIVE. 

754. The relative is generally placed after its antecedent. 

755. To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed as near its antecedent 
as possible, and so that there can be no uncertainty respecting- the word to which 
it refers. 

756. In most instances the sense will be a sufficient guide in this matter ; thus, 
" Tbey removed their wives and children in wagons covered with the skins of ani- 
mals, which formed their simple habitations." Here the sense only can determine 
to which of the three words, wagons, skins, or animals, the relative which refers. 
But— 

757. When the antecedent can not be determined by the sense, it should be de- 
termined by the position of the relative, which, as a general rale, should belong to 
the nearest antecedent. Thus — 

" We walked from the house to the barn > , . , . , . ... 

..„ T ii ' j * si t. r 17 c which had been erected. 

"We walked to the bam trom the house ) 

Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers, in the first sentence, 
to barn, and in the second to house. 

758. So also when the antecedents denote the same object, the one being in the 
subject and the other, in the predicate, the relative takes .the person of the one 
next it; as, " I am the man who commands you" — not "command you." If the 
relative refer to /, the words should be arranged, ■' I who command you am the 
man. Hence — 

759. A relative clause which modifies the subject should not be placed in the 
predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that can not ride," should be, " He 
that can not ride, should not keep a horse." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, which are the relatives? What is the antecedent 
to which each refers ? Correct those which are wrong, and give the rule, or the 
reason for the change : — 

(744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. This is 
the friend which I love.-— (745) That is the vice whom I hate. The 
tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. The court who 
gives currency to such manners should be exemplary. The nations 
who have the best rulers are happy. Your friend is one of the com- 
mittee who was appointed yesterday. The family with whom I 
lived has left the city. — (747) His father set him up as a merchant, 
who was what he desired to be. If you intend to be a teacher, who 
you can not be without learning, you must study. 

(748) It is the best situation which can be got. That man was 
the first who entered. This is the same horse which we saw yes- 
terday. Solomon was the wisest king whom the world ever saw. 
The lady and the lapdog, which we saw at the window, have disap- 



SYNTAX — ^NOMINATIVE. 155 

peared. The man and the things which he has studied have not im- 
proved his morals. I who speak unto you am he. No man who 
respects himself would do so mean an action. 

(749) O Thou who hast preserved us, and that wilt still preserve us ! 
The man whom we met to-day, and that was at our house yesterday, 
is the same. O Thou that art, and who wast, and that art to come ! 

(752) I have sent everything what you ordered. All whosoever 
came were made welcome. Everything whatsoever ye would that 
men should do to you, do ye even so to them. He whoever steals 
my purse steals trash. — (753) I can not believe but what you have 
been sick. It is not impossible but what you are mistaken. 

(755) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had 
never before committed so unjust an action. 

(759) He needs no spectacles that can not see, nor hoots that can 
not walk. Those must not expect the sympathy of the diligent, who 
spend their time in idleness. 



THE SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 

760. Rule VI. — The subject of a finite verb is put in 
the nominative; as, "I am"—" Thou art" — "He is" — 
" They are"— " Time flies." 

761. A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative 
mood. It is called finite, because in these parts it is limited by person and num- 
ber. In the infinitive and participles, it is not so limited. 

762. The subject of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive 
mood (394), a participle used as a noun (462), or a clause of a sentence. All these, 
when the subject of the verb, are regarded as the nominative. 

763. Every nominative, not absolute (769), or independent (773-775), or in appo- 
sition (668), or in the predicate (795), is the subject of a verb, expressed or under- 
stood. 

764. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative who has no verb 
to which it is the nominative, viz. : " These evils were caused by Catiline, who, if 
he had been punished, the republic would not have been exposed to so great dan= 
gers." Better — "If Catiline, by whom these evils were caused, had been pun- 
ished," &c. Hence — 

765. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as the nominative to the 
same verb ; thus, " The king he is just," should be, " The king is just." Except 
when the compound pronouns are added to the subject for the sake of emphasis 
(249) ; as, " The king himself has come." 

766. The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after than or as, 
often has the verb understood ; as, " Wlw said so ?" — " He [said so]." — "James is 
taller than / [am] ; but not so tall as you [are].*' 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. 

767. The subject is commonly placed before the verb. But in imperative and 
interrogative sentences, and in sentences inserted for the sake of emphasis or eu- 
phony, the subject is often placed after the verb ; as, " Go thou."' — "Did he go ?"— * 
" May you be happy I" — M Were / he." — *' Neither did they." — "Said I" — '• There 
was a man" &c. 

Under this rule there is liability to error only in the use of pronouns ? and in leav- 
ing a nominative without its verb. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Which norms or pronouns in the following sentences are the subject of a verb 1 
If not in the proper case r change them, and give the rule, or a reason for the 
change : — 

(760) Him and me are of the same age. Come, let yon and me 
go. Them are excellent. Whom do you think has arrived ? Them 
that seek wisdom will find It. You and us enjoy many privileges. 
John is older than me.— (766) You are as tall as her. Who has a 
knife ? Me. Who came in ? Her and him. You can write a& 
well as me. That Is the boy whom we think deserves the prize. 

(765) Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet men 
are so constituted as to respect genuine merit* 



THE NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT. 

768. Rule VII. — -A substantive whose case depends on 
no other word, is put in the nominative. This occurs un- 
der the four following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

769. Rule 1.— A substantive toith a participle, whose case 
depends on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute; 
as, " He being gone, only two remain. 7 ' 

770. In this construction, the substantive is sometimes understood ; as, " His con- 
duct, viewing it even favorably, can not be commended ;" that is, we, a person 
viewing it, &c. 

771. Sometimes being and having been are omitted; as. H Her wheel [bei?ig] 
at rest" — " He destroyed or won" &c, that is, " He having been destroyed or 
won" &c. — " This said," that is, " This being said/' 

772. In this construction, the substantive with the participle is used to express 
an assumed fact in an abbreviated form, and is equivalent to a dependent clause, 
connected by when, while, if, si/we, because. &c. (650) ; as, "He having gone, his 
brother returned *"== ' Since or because he went, his brother returned." 



SYNTAX NOMINATIVE. 157 

773. Rule 2. — A person or thing addressed, without a verb 
or governing word, is put in the nominative independent ; as, 
" I remain, dear sir, yours truly" — " Plato, thou reasonest 
well." 

774. Rule 3. — A substantive, unconnected in mere excla- 
mation, is put in the nominative independent; as, " O, the 
times ! O the manners /" 

775. Rule 4. — A substantive, tcsed by pleonasm before an 
affirmation, is put in the nominative independent ; as, "The 
boy, oh ! where was he V — " Your fathers, where are 
they? — the prophets, do they live forever?" 

Under this rule, a mistake can be made only in the case of pronouns, 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Point out the noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word — put it in 
the case required by the rule, and give the special rule requiring it. 

Me being absent, the business was neglected. He made as wise 
proverbs as any body, him only excepted. All enjoyed themselve' 
very much, us excepted. Whom being dead, we shall come. 

Whose gray top 
Shall tremble, him descending. 
The bleating sheep with my complaints agree ; 
Them parched with heat and me inflamed by thee. 
Her quick relapsing to her former state. 
Then all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 



THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 

776. Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, "I read" " Thou readest" " He 
reads," " We read," &c. 

[Respecting the nominative or subject, see (493). This rule, and the special 
rules under it, apply to an infinitive mood or clause of a sentence, when the sub- 
ject of a verb (762), as well as to nouns and pronouns.] 

SPECIAL RULES. 

777. Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a plural sense, has 
a verb in the plural ; as, " Ten sail are in sight" (160). 

778. Rule 2. — Ttao or more substantives, singular, taken 

14 



158 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



together, have a verb in the plural; as, "James and John 
are here." 

779. Substantives taken together are connected by and, expressed or under- 
stood (955), as in the example. 

780. A singular nominative and an objective, connected by with, sometimes have 
a plural verb ; as, « The ship with the crew were lost." This construction is incor- 
rect, and should not be imitated. A mere adjunct of a substantive does not change 
its number or construction. Either, then, the verb should be singular, " The ship 
with the crew was lost," or, if the second substantive is considered as belonging to 
the subject, it should be connected by and ; as, - The ship and the crew were 
lost." But, 

^ 781. When substantives connected by and, denote one person or thing, the verb 
is singular; as. « Why * dust and ashes proud ?"-« The saint, the father, and 
the husband, prays." — Burns, 

782; Singular nouns, preceded by each, every, no, though connected by and, 
have the verb in the singular; as, « Each look and each paper was arranged"— 
"Every paper and every book was arranged"-- No book and no paper was 
arranged." 

783. When a verb, having several nominatives connected by and, is placed after 
the first, it agrees with that, and is understood to the rest ; as, 

" Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love."— Thomson. 

784. When the substantives connected are of different persons, 
the verb in the plural prefers the first to the second, and the second 
to the third. This can be perceived only in the pronoun (730-2). 

785. Rule 3. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken 
separately, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in 
the singular ; as, 

41 James or John attends"—" Neither James nor John attends"— 
" John, and not [but not] James, attends"—" John as well as James 
attends"—" Not John, but James attends," &e. 

786. Nouns taken separately, are connected by or, nor, as well as, and also, 
&c. A noun taken so as to exclude others, is connected with them bv such phrases 
as and not, but not, not, &c. In such, the verb agrees with the subject affirmed 
ot, and is understood with the others. 

Note.— Singular nouns connected by nor, sometimes have a plural verb. In 
that case, the verb denies equally of all, and nor is equivalent to and, connecting 
the nouns, and a negative which is transferred to, and modifies the verb ; as 
"Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Solon, nor Lycurgus, were eloquent men,"-' 
Acton.=« Moses, and Minos, and Solon, and Lycurgus, were not eloquent men/' 
or, ^ were neither of them eloquent." This construction has not been generally 
noticed, but it often occurs in the best winters. 

787 But when two or more substantives, taken separately, are of different num- 
bers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural subject is usually placed 
next the verb; as, -Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved;" rarely 
'• Neither the sailors nor the captain was saved." 



SYNTAX— NOMINATIVE. 159 

788. Rule 4. — When substantives, taken separately, are 
of different per sons, the verb agrees with the one next it; as, 
" James or I am in the wrong" — " Either you or he is mis- 
taken" — " I or thou art to blame." 

789. Though sentences are often formed according to this rule, yet they are generally 
harsh and inelegant. It is generally better to put the verb with the first substan- 
tive, and repeat it with the second ; or to express the same idea by arranging the 
sentence differently; as, "James is in the wrong or I am," or, " One of us is in 
the wrong" — " Either you are mistaken or he is" — " I am to blame, or thou art" 
This remark is sometimes applicable also, when the substantives are of the same 
person, but different in number, and requiring each a different form of the verb ; as, 
" Either the captain or the sailors were to blame ;' ' otherwise, " Either the captain 
was to blame, or the sailors were" 

790. Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun, expressing many, as 
one whole, has a verb in the singular ; as, " The company 
was large." 

791 — 2. But when a collective noun expresses many as 
individuals, the verb must be plural; as, "My people do 
not consider." 

792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun expresses 
unity or 'plurality. It is now considered generally best to use the plural, where 
the singular is not manifestly required. 

793. A nominative after " many a" has a verb in the singular; as, "Full many a 
flower is born,'' &c. 

794. Two or more verbs connected in the same construction as a compound pred- 
icate (627) have the same nominative ; as, " James reads and writes" — James 
neither reads nor writes." 

795. But when verbs are not connected in the same construction, every verb 
should have its own nominative. The following sentence is wrong in this respect: 
" The whole is produced as an illusion of the first class, and hopes it will be found 
worthy of patronage ;" it should be, either, " He produces the whole as an illusion," 
&c., "and hopes" &c. ; or, " The w hole is produced," &c., "and he hopes," &c, 
or, " and it is hoped," &c. 

For the Position of the verb and its subject see (767), and also (741). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What is the verb in each of the following sentences ? What is its subject 1 
See if they agree. If they do, give the rule and show how it applies. If they do 
not, change the verb so as to agree with its nominative, and give the rule. Thus, 
loves should be love, to agree with /, in the first person, singular. Rule — " A verb 
agrees," &c. 

(776) I loves reading. A soft answer turn away wrath. We is but 
of yesterday, and knows nothing. The days of man is as grass. Thou 
sees how little has been done. He dare not act otherwise. Fifty 
pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour. A variety of pleas- 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing objects charm the eye. So much of ability and merit are seldom 
found. A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. 
Was you there ? Circumstances alters cases. There is sometimes 
two or three of us. I, who are first, has the best claim. The deri- 
vation of these words are uncertain. Much does human pride and 
folly require correction. To do good unto others are the duty of all. 
To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable.— (482) She 
needs not trouble herself. The truth needs not always be told. 

(777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour. The horse 
was sent forward to engage the enemy. The foot, in the meantime, 
was preparing for an attack. Fifty sail was seen approaching the 
coast. Two dozen is as many as you can take. One pair was 
spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. 

(778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Anger and impatience 
is always unreasonable. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing 
and cursing. Idleness and ignorance produces many vices. Tem- 
perance and exercise preserves health. Time and tide waits for no 
man. Our welfare and security consists in unity. To profess regard 
and to act differently marks a base mind. To be good and to seem 
good is different things. To do good and to shun evil is equally our 
duty. 

(781) That able scholar and critic have died. Your friend and 
patron, who were here yesterday, have called again to-day. 

(782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, teem 
with life. Every man and every woman were searched. Each day, 
and hour, and moment, are to be diligently improved. No wife, no 
mother, no child, soothe his cares. No oppressor, no tyrant, triumph 
there. 

(785) Either the boy or the girl were present. Neither pre- 
cept nor discipline are so forcible as example. Our happiness or 
misery depend much upon our own conduct. When sickness, infirm- 
ity, or misfortune, affect us, the sincerity of friendship is tried. 
Neither ability nor inclination are wanting. A man's being rich, or 
his being poor, do not affect his character for integrity. To do good 
or to get good are equally neglected by the foolish. 

(786) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost in the 
undertaking. He, and not we, are to blame. James, and also his 
brother, have embarked for the gold region. Books, not pleasure, 
occupies his mind. He, and not they, are mistaken. 



SYNTAX NOMINATIVE. 161 

(787) Neither the scholars nor the teacher was present. Whether 
the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no difference. 

(788) Either he or I are willing to go. Neither thou nor he 
art of age. You or your brother are blamed. Neither James nor 1 
has had a letter this week. Either Robert or his sons has met with 
great losses. Thou, or he, or John, art the author of that letter. 

(790) Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet- 
ing were large and respectable. The people often rejoices in that 
which will prove their ruin. The British parliament are composed 
of lords and commons. Congress consist of a senate and house of 
representatives. Never were any nation so infatuated. The noble 
army of martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! A great number of women 
were present; The public is respectfully informed. The audience 
was much pleased. The council was not unanimous. Congress 
have adjourned. 

(793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. Many a 
broken ship have come to land. 

(795) The letter from which the extract -was taken, and came by 
mail, is lost. It was proposed by the president to fit out an expedi- 
tion, and has accomplished it. Our friend brought two loads to mar- 
ket, and were sold at a good price. The house which he built at 
great expense, and was richly furnished, has been burned down. 



THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 

796. Rule IX. — The predicate substantive, after a 

verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as — 

"It is /" — " He shall be called John" — " She walks a queen" — 
" I took it to be him" — tk He seems to be a scholar" — " The opinion 
is, that he will live." Hence — 

Note. As the subject of a verb can be only in the nominative (760) or objective 
(872) the predicate substantive can be only in the nominative or objective. 

797. Any verb may be the copula between the subject and the predicate sub- 
stantive, except a transitive verb in the active voice. But those most commonly 
used in this way are the verbs to be, to become, to seem, to appear ; intransitive 
verbs of motion, position, &c, and passive verbs, denoting to call, name, style, 
appoint, choose, make, esteem, reckon, and the like. 

798. The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can be the 
subject of a verb (762). 

799. The infinitive without a subject, or the participle of a cop- 
14* 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

illative verb in a substantive clause, has a predicate substantive after 
it in the nominative ; as — 

u To be a foreigner is a disadvantage/' 
" He was not known to be a foreigner." 
"His being a foreigner was not known." 
" He "was suspected of being a foreigner" 
"We did not know his being [or, of bis being] a foreigner." 
In all these examples, the word foreigner is the predicate nominative after to be, 
or being, because these phrases being only abridged dependent clauses (651), the 
predicate noun remains in the same case after the clause is abridged as it was 
before. Thus, " He was not known to be a foreigner" —" It was not known that 
he was a foreigner." As, then, in the latter form, foreigner is in the nominative 
under the rule, it remains the same in the abridged form, and so of the other 
examples. But when we say, " For him to be a foreigner" or, " We did not 
know him to be a foreigner" (396), him, in both examples, is the subject of to be, 
and foreigner the objective, according to the rale. — See App. 

POSITION. 

800. The usual position of the predicate substantive is after the 
verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order 
of construction. But in both the direct and the indirect question, 
and in inverted sentences, its place is often different ; thus, " Who is 
he ?" — " We know not who he is'' — " Is he a student ?" — " He is 
the same that he was" — " The dog it was that died"— 4 ' A man he 
was to all the country dear" — "Feet was 7 to the lame" — "Far 
other scene is Thrasymene now" 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, which is the copulative verb ? — what is its subject 1 
— what the predicate substantive ? Correct where it is wrong, and give the reason 
for the correction. Thus, me is the predicate substantive, and should be I, because 
the subject it is in the nominative. Rule — " The predicate," &c. 

(796) It is me. It was me who wrote the letter, and him who 
carried it to the post-office. I am sure it could not have been her. 
It is them, you said, who deserve most blame. You would proba- 
bly do the same thing if you were him. I understood it to be he. 
It may have been him, but there is no proof of it. 

Whom do you think he is ? Who do you think him to be ? 
Whom do men say that I am ? She is the person who I understood 
it to be. He is the man whom you said it was. Let him be whom 
he may. Can you tell whom that man is ? Is it not him whom 
you thought it was ? 






SYNTAX^-OBJECTIVE. 163 

THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

801. Rule X. — A transitive verb in the active voice 
governs the objective case; as, "We love him." — "He loves 
us." — " Whom did they send?" 

802. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or part of a 
sentence, may be the object of a transitive verb, as well as a noun or 
pronoun; as, "Boys love to play.'" — "I know who is there" — "I 
wish that they were wise" — " You see how few have returned." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

803. Rube 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an ob- 
jective case. Thus — 

"Repenting him of his design, " should be, " Repenting of his de- 
sign." Still, a few anomalies of this kind are to be found ; as, "They 
laughed him to scorn." — "The manliness to look the subject in the 
face." — " Talked the night away." 

804. Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense (375) 
govern the objective case ; as, " He runs a race." — "They live 
a holy life." 

805. To this usage may be referred such expressions as the following : " The 
brooks ran nectary — " The trees wept gums and balms. 1 ' — " Her lips blush deeper 
sweets," &c. 

806. To this rule also belongs the objective after calmatives (375-3) ; as, u He 
runs a stage." — " John walks his horse." — " He works him hard," &c. Such ex- 
pressions, however, as " Grows corn" are inelegant, and should be avoided. 

807. Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive 
voice, except when used transitively (375). Thus — 

"lam purposed" — " I am perished," should be, "I have pur- 
posed" — "I am perishing." But we can say, " My race is run," 
because run is used transitively. In such expressions as "I am re- 
solved" — " He is deceased" — " He is retired from business" — " We 
are determined to go on," &c, if regarded as correct, the participle 
is used as an adjective. It is more correct, though not more common, 
to say, "I have resolved" — " He has retired," &c. 

808. A transitive verb in the active voice, without an object, either has an object 
understood, or is used intransitively (323). 

809. Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a preposi- 
tion after it; thus, " I must premise with a few observations." 
— " I will not allow of it." Omit with and of. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

810. Rule 5.— Verbs signifying to name, choose, appoint, 
constitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz., 
the direct, denoting the person or thing acted upon, and the 
indirect, denoting the result of the act expressed ; as, " They 
named him John" — " The people elected him president" — 
" They made it a book." 

811. In such sentences, in the passive voice, the direct object is made the subject, 
and the indirect remains as the predicate nominative after the verb, according to 
Rule IX. Thus, " He was named John." — " He was elected president." — " It was 
made a book.'' 

812. Besides the immediate object in the objective case, some verbs have a re- 
mote object between the immediate and the verb, governed by a preposition un- 
derstood ; as, " John gave me a book." But when the remote object comes last, the 
preposition must be expressed: as, "John gave & hook to me." The verbs thus 
used are such as signify to ask, teach, offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, 
and some others. 

813. These verbs properly take the immediate object of the active voice as the 
subject in the passive, and the remote remains in the objective after the passive, 
governed by a preposition, expressed or understood ; as, " A book was promised 
me or to me." 

814. In loose composition, however, the remote object is sometimes made the 
subject, and the immediate remains in the objective case after the passive voice ; 
as, "I was promised a book." The verbs ask and teach frequently have this 
double construction in the passive, but in general the regular construction is better. 

POSITION. 

815. As the nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike, 
the arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case 
from the other. The nominative generally precedes the verb, and 
the objective follows it. Thus, " Brutus killed Caesar."' If one (or 
both) of these should be a pronoun, the order may be varied without 
obscuring the sense, and sometimes the objective is rendered more 
emphatic by being placed first ; as, "Him he slew." 

816. When the objective is a relative or interrogative pronoun, it 
precedes both the verb and its nominative ; as, " The man whom we 
saw is dead." — " Whom did you send?" 

817. The objective should not, if possible, be separated from its verb by inter- 
vening clauses. Thus, " We could not discover, for the want of proper tests, the 
quality of the metal." Better, " We could not, for want of proper tests, discover 
the quality of the metal." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, correct the errors according to the rule, and give a 
reason for the change. Parse the sentences corrected. Thus, / should be me, 
because governed by loves. Rule, "A transitive verb," &c. : — 



SYNTAX OBJECTIVE. 165 

(801) He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou? 
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye only have I 
known. He who committed the offence thou should st correct, not I 
who am innocent. They that honor me I will honor. Who do you 
think I saw 3'esterday ? Who did he marry ? She who we met at 
the Springs last summer. Who, having not seen, we love. Who 
should I meet the other day but my old friend ? Who dost thou take 
to be such a coward ? 

(803) You will have reason enough to repent you of your foolish 
conduct. They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. Hasten thee home. Sit 
thee down and rest thee. 

(807) Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. Fifty men 
are deserted from the army. I am purposed that I will not sin. He 
is almost perished with cold. I am resolved to go. He is retired to 
his room. The plague was then entirely ceased. Is your father 
returned ? He was not returned an hour ago. 

(809) No country will allow of such a practice. False accusation 
can not diminish from his real merit. His servants ye are, to whom 
ye obey. He ingratiates with some by traducing others. They shall 
not want for encouragement. We do not want for anything. Covet 
earnestly for the best gifts. 

Change the following into the regular form, and give a reason for the change : — 

(813) I was promised a pension. He was offered a pardon. She 
would not accept the situation, though she was offered it. I was paid 
a dollar for my services. I was given a book of great value. The 
commissioner was denied access. 

(817) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so pow- 
erful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right. The troops 
pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates. 



THE OBJECTIVE GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

818. Rule XL — A 'preposition governs the objective 
case ; as, " To whom much is given, of 'him much shall be 
required." 

819. The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood — a participle 
used as a noun — part of a sentence — a phrase, or dependent clause, as well as a 
noun or pronoun; as, "He is about to depart.'' — "Afters came" — "Ox re- 
ceiving his diploma.'" — " Much depends on who are his advisers." 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

820. As a general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect either an active tran- 
sitive verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the same object. Thus, " I 
wrote to and warned him." Better, "lwrote to him, and warned him." So," Of him, 
and through him, and to him, are all things." Not of, and through, and to him, &c. 

821. This general rule is so little regarded, even by the best writers, that it is a 
matter of doubt whether it should any longer retain a place in our grammars. In 
many instances, at least, the form of speech condemned by the rule is clearly better 
in respect of perspicuity, brevity, and strength, than that which it recommends, and 
in such cases it should be adopted. In some cases, again, as in the above example, 
the full form is better than the elliptical. In this matter, every one must be guided 
by his taste and judgment, avoiding equally obscurity and harshness. 

822. When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of places, 
the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : — 

1. To — is used after a verb of motion toward ; as, " He went to Spain." But it 

is omitted before home, ; as, " Go home. 11 

2. At — is used before names of houses, villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, 

"He resides at the Mansion House" — a At Saratoga Springs" — "At 
Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, '• He lives in Eng- 

land" — "In London" — "In New York." But at is used before the 
names of places and large cities after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and 
frequently after the verb to be ; as, " We touched at Liverpool, and, after 
a short passage, landed at New Orleans." — " I was at New York." 

4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the No., and in be- 

fore the street ; as, " He resides at No. ." — " He lives in State street." 

When both are mentioned together, the preposition is commonly under- 
stood before the last ; as, " He lives at No. , State street," or " He 

lives in State street, No. ." 

823. The preposition is frequently understood, as follows: — 

1. A preposition expressed with the first noun or pronoun of a series, may be 

understood to the rest ; as " Be kind to John and James and Mary." 

2. When the remote object of a verb, governed by a preposition, is placed be- 

tween the verb and its immediate object, the preposition is often omitted ; 
as, " Give me your hand." — " Bring me a chair." — " Get me a book" (812). 

3. To is commonly omitted after like, near, nigh ; as, "Like his father" — "Near 

a river," &c. ; and of frequently after worthy and unworthy. 

824. Sometimes the antecedent term of a preposition, and sometimes the subse- 
quent (539), is omitted. Thus, the antecedent : " [I say] in a word." — " All shall 
know me [reckoning] from the least to the greatest." The subsequent : " There 
is a man I am acquainted with" — that is, with whom I am acquainted. The sub- 
sequent is always omitted when it is the antecedent to a compound relative (273) ; 
as, " Give it to whoever will take it." 

825. The phrases, in vain, in secret, at first, at last, in short, on high, and the 
like, may either be parsed together as adverbs, or the noun may be supplied, and 
each word parsed separately ; as, " In a vain manner" — " In a secret place" &c. 
The phrase in a word has the preceding term of relation understood ; as, " [To say] 
in a word." 

826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases, ending with a preposition, govern 



SYNTAX OBJECTIVE. 167 

a noun following, in the objective ; as, " Maugre hell," that is, "in spite of hell." — 
Milton. 

827. Though words denoting weight, measure, &c., are evidently governed by a 
preposition, yet, as it is for the most part understood, it is better to dispose of such 
cases by the following — 

SPECIAL RULE. 

828. Rule. — Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or 
measure, are commonly put in the objective case, tvitlwut a 
governing word ; as — 

" He was absent six months last year" — " It cost a shilling." — 
" It is not worth a cent" — " It weighs a pound " — " The wall is six 
feet high, and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, &c, as the case 
may be. 

829. Nouns denoting time how long are generally without a preposition ; as, "He 
is ten years old." Also nouns denoting time tchen, in a general or indefinite way ; 
as, " He came last week." But nouns denoting the time when, definitely or with 
precision, generally have the preposition expressed ; as. u He came last week, on 
Wednesday, in the evening.'" 

POSITION. 

830. Prepositions should be placed before the words which they 
govern, and as near to them as possible ; but never before that as a 
relative. 

831. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some dis- 
tance after them ; this, however, should be avoided as much as possible. Thus, 
" That is the man whom I gave the letter to." Generally better thus — " to whom 
I gave the letter." 

832. The preposition with its regimen should be placed as near as 
possible to the word to which it is related. 

833. Under this rule there is liability to error only in the case of pronouns and 
position. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the word governed by 
it. Correct the errors, and give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences when 
corrected : — 

(818) To who will you give that pen? That is a small matter 
between you and I. He came along with James and I. He gave 
the book to some one, I know not who. — (831 ) Who does it belong to ? 
The book which I read that story in is lost. 

(822) I have been to Boston. They live in Saratoga Springs. 
We touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. He has been 



168 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



to home for some days. He lives at Hudson street, in No. 42. We 
remained in a village in the vicinity of London. 

(823) Be so good as lend to me your grammar. Get to him a 
book like that. Ask of me that question again. This has taught to 
me a lesson which I will always be mindful of. Pay to me what 
you owe to me. I shall be pleased to do to him a kindness. Will 
you do to me a favor ? 

(830) The nature of the undertaking was such as to render the 
progress very slow of the work. Beyond this period the arts can not 
be traced of civil society. 

The wrong position of the preposition and its regimen often produces very ludi- 
crous sentences. The following are a specimen : — 

Wanted a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious 
turn of mind. The following verses were written by a young man 
who has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement. A public 
dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast beef and plum-pudding. 
I saw that the kettle had been scoured, with half an eye. He rode 
to town, and drove twelve cows, on horseback. The man was dig- 
ging a well, with a Roman nose. 



834. Rule XII. — Certain words and phrases should be 
followed by appropriate prepositions. 

The following list may be useful for reference : — 

Advantage over, of. 

Affinity to, with. 

Affection for. 

Agree with a person ; to a proposition, 

from another; upon a thing among 

themselves. 
Agreeable to. 
Allude to. 

Alter to, alteration in. 
Amerce in. 
Annex to. 
Analogy to, with. 
Antipathy to, against. 
Approve of. 
Array with, in. 
Arrive at. 
Ascendant over. 
Ask of a person; for a thing; after 

what we wish to hear of 



Abhorrence of 

Abound in, with. 

Abridge from. 

Absent from. 

Access to. 

Accommodate to. 

Accord with. 

Accuse of. 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of. 

Acquiesce in. 

Adapted to. 

Adequate to. 

Adhere to. 

Adjudge to. 

Admonish of. 

Address to. 

Admission (access) to. 

Admission (entrance) into. 



SYNTAX PREPOSITIONS. 



169 



Aspire to, after. 

Associate with, seldom to. 

Assent to. 

Assure of. 

Attain to. 

Averse to, from. 

Banish from, to. 

Believe in, sometimes on. 

Bereft of 

Bestow upon, on. 

Betray to a person ; into a thing. 

Boast of. 

Bind to, in. 

Blush at. 

Border upon, on. 

Call on a person ; at a place. 

Capacity for. 

Careful of, in. 

Catch at. 

Change (exchange) for ; (alter) to, into. 

Charge on a person ; with a thing. 

Compare with, in respect of quality ; to, 
by way of illustration. 

Comply, compliance with. 

Composed of. 

Concede to. 

Concur with a person ; in a measure ; 
to an effect. 

Condescend to. 

Confer on, upon. 

Confide in. 

Conformable, conformity to, with. 

Congenial to. 

Congratulate upon, on. 

Consonant to. 

Consist (to be composed) of; (to be com- 
prised) in. 

Consistent with. 

Contrast with. 

Conversant with men ; in things : about 
and among are less proper. 

Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond (to be consistent) with ; (an- 
swering or suitable) to. 

Correspondence with. 

Cured of. 

Debar from. 

Defend (others) from ; — (ourselves) 
against. 

u 



Demand of. 

Denounce against a person. 
Depend, dependent upon, on. 
Deprive of. 

Derogate from, derogatory to. 
Derogation from, of 
Despair of. 
Despoil of. 
Devolve on. 

Die, perish of a disease ; by an instru- 
ment, or violence ; for another. 
Differ, different from. 
Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, diminution of. 
Disabled from. 

Disagree with a person ; to a proposal. 
Disagreeable to. 

Disappointed of what we do not get ; in 
what does not answer when got. 

Disapprove of. 

Discourage from ; discouragement to. 

Disgusted at, with. 

Dispose of; disposed (adj.) to. 

Dispossess of 

Disqualify for. 
Dissent from. 

Distinct from. 

Divested of. 

Divide between two ; among more. 

Eager in, on, of, for, after. 

Embark in. 

Employ in, on. about. 

Enamored with. 

Encroach upon, on. 

Endeavor after a thing. 

Engage in a work ; for a time.' 

Enjoin upon. 

Entrance into. 

Equal to, with. 

Equivalent to. 

Espouse to. 

Estimated at. 

Exception from, to. 

Exclude, exclusion from. 

Exclusive of 

Expelled from. 

Expert at (before a noun) ; in (before an 
active participle). 

Fall under disgrace ; from a tree ; into a 
pit ; to work ; upon an enemy, 



170 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Familiar to, with ; a thing is familiar to 
us — we with it. 

Fawn upon, on. 

Followed by. 

Fond of. 

Foreign to. 

Founded upon, on, in. 

Free from. 

Fruitful in. 

Full of 

Glad of something gained by ourselves ; 
at something that befalls another. 

Grateful to a person : for favors. 

Hanker after. 

Hinder from. 

Hold of; as, "Take hold of me." 

Impose upon. 

Incorporate (active transitive) into ; (in- 
transitive or passive) with. 

Inculcate on. 

Independent of. 

Indulge with a thing not habitual ; in a 
thing habitual. 

Indulgent to. 

Influence on, over, with. 

Inform of about, concerning. 

Initiate into a place ; in an art. 

Inquire. — (See ask.) 

Inroad into. 

Inseparable from. 

Insinuate into. 

Insist upon. 

Instruct in. 

Inspection (prying) into; (superinten- 
dence) over. 

Intent upon, on. 

Interfere with. 

Intervene between. 

Introduce into a place ; to a person. 

Intrude into a place enclosed ; upon a. 
person, or a thing not enclosed. 

Inured to. 

Invested with, in. 

Lame of. 

Level with. 

Long for, after. 

Look on what is present ; for what is 
absent ; after what is distant. 

Made of 
Made much of 



Marry to. 

Martyr for. 

Militate against. 

Mistrustful of. 

Need of. 

Obedient to. 

Object to, against. 

Observance, observation of. 

Obtrude upon, on. 

Occasion for. 

Offensive to. 

Operate upon, on. 

Opposite, opposition to. 

Partake of ; participate of, in. 

Penetrate into. 

Persevere in. 

Pitch upon. 

Poor in. 

Prefer to, over, above. 

Preference to, over. 

Preferable to. 

Prefix to. 

Prejudice against. 

Preside over. 

Prevent from. 

Prevail (to persuade) with, on, upon ; (to 

overcome) over, against. 
Prey on, upon. 
Productive of 
Profit by. 

Protect others from ; ourselves against. 
Pronounce against a person ; on a thing. 
Provide with, for. 
Proud of. 
Purge of away. 
Quarrel with. 
Reckon on, upon. 
Reconcile (to friendship) to; (to make 

consistent) with. 
Reduce (subdue) under ; (in other cases) 

to. 
Reflect upon. on. 
Regard for ; in regard to. 
Rely upon, on. 
Replete with. 
Reproached for. 
Resemblance to. 
Resolve on. 

Respect to ; in respect to, of. 
Restore to. 



SYNTAX PREPOSITIONS. 171 

Rich in. taste for, means capacity or genius 

Rob of. for. 

Rule over. Tax with (for example, a crime, an act) ; 

Share in, of for (a purpose, the state). 

Sick of. Thankful for. 

Significant of. Think of, on. 

Similar to. Touch at. 

Sink into, beneath. Unite (transitive) to ; (intransitive) with. 

Skilful (before a noun) in ; (before a Unison with, to. 

participle) at, in. Useful for. 

Strain out. Value upon, on. 

Strip of. Vest, before the possessor, in ; before the 

Submit to. thing possessed, with. 

Sent to. Wait upon, on. 

Swerve from. • Witness of [of is generally omitted. 

Taste of means actual enjoyment; — Worthy, unworthy of. But after these, 

835. What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as much upon what fol- 
lows, as upon what goes before. Thus, " To fall from a height" — u into a pit" — 
"in battle" — "to zvork" — " upon an enemy." 

836. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and implies entrance. In is used 
after verbs of motion or rest, and denotes situation, but never entrance; as, "He 
went into a carnage, and rode in it." 

837. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without a preposition fol- 
lowing ; so also worthy and unworthy. 

838. The same preposition that follows a verb or adjective usually follows the 
noun derived from it, and vice versa ; as, " Confide in" — " Confident in" — " Confi- 
dence in." 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the antecedent term. 
If not appropriate, correct, and give the rale : — 

This remark is founded with truth. He was eager of recommending 
him to his fellow-citizens. I find great difficulty of writing. Every 
change is not a change to the better. Changed for a worse shape it 
can not be. It is important, in times of trial, to have a friend to 
whom you can confide. i r ou may rely in the truth of what he says. 
Many have profited from good advice, but have not always been 
grateful of it. I have no occasion of his services. Favors are not 
always bestow r ed to the most deserving. This is very different to 
that. Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. Come in the 
house. We rode into a carriage with four horses. The boy fell 
under a deep pit. Such conduct can not be reconciled to your pro- 
fession. Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. A man had four 
sons, and he divided his property between them. I am now engaged 
with that work. He insists on it that he is right. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE POSSESSIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 

839. Rule XIII. — One substantive governs another in 
the possessive , when the latter substantive limits the significa- 
tion of the former ; as, " Virtue's reward" — "John's books" 
840. The substantive in the possessive case limits the governing 
noun, by representing the thing named as proceeding from, possessed 
by, or suitable to the person or thing expressed by the possessive (165). 
It is of course necessary, under this rule, that the substantives signify 
different things. 

841. A substantive, limited by the possessive, may be any noun in any case, or a 
verbal noun (462), either alone or with its regimen, or modifying words •. as, ** On 
eagles' wings.'' — " He was opposed to John's writing" — u I am in favor of a 
pupil's composing frequently." — " John's having devoted himself too much to 
study was the cause of his sickness." 

842. The noun governing- the possessive is often understood ; as, " This book is 
John's [book]." It is always omitted after the possessive case of the personal 
pronouns ; as, " This book is mine, thine, ours" &c, and. in this construction, when 
supplied, the possessive case must be changed for the possessive pronoun (241) ; 
as, " This is my book, thy book, our book ;" not mine book, &c. (292). 

843. The possessive case, and the preposition of with the objective, are often 
equivalent ; as, " My father's house" = u The house of my father ." But — 

844. Sometimes the idea expressed by of with the objective, can not be ex- 
pressed at all by the possessive ; as, " A ring of gold" — " A cup of water" — "A 
piece of land" — " The house of refuge" &c. Sometimes, again, the ideas ex- 
pressed are different ; thus, " The Lord's day" means the sabbath. " The day of 
the Lord" means the day of judgment. <; My father s picture," means a picture 
belonging to my father. u A picture of my father" means a portrait of him. " God's 
love" means only the love which God feels. " The love of God" means either the 
love which God feels to us, or that which we feel to him. 

845. Of before a possessive case, followed by its governing substantive, usually 
governs that substantive ; as, " The heat of the sun's rays." But of before a pos- 
sessive, not followed by its governing word, governs that word understood, and the 
expression refers to a part of the things possessed ; as, " A discovery of [that is, 
from] Sir Isaac Newton's [discoveries] ;" meaning, " One of Sir Isaac Newton's 
discoveries" (242). 

846. Even when the possessive case, and of with the objective, are equivalent 
in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as well as perspicuity of the sentence, 
will often render the one expression preferable to the other. When this is the case, 
care should be taken to use that form which, in the circumstances is best. Thus, 
" In the name of the army'' is better than, •' In the army's name;" " My mother's 
gold ring" is better than, " The gold ring of my mother." A succession of words 
in either form is harsh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two ; thus, 
" My brother's wife's sister" — better — " The sister of my brother's wife." — " The 
sickness of the son of the king" — better — " The sickness of the king's son." 

847. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, implying com- 



SYNTAX POSSESSIVE. L73 

mon possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last, and understood 
to the rest; as, " Jane and Lucy's books," that is, books the common property of 
Jane and Lucy. But if common possession is not implied, or if several words 
intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, " Jane's and 
Lucy's books," that is, books, some of which are Jane's and others Lucy's. — 
" This gained the king's, as well as the people's, approbation." 

848. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, the sign of 
the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, " Julius Caesar's Commentaries" — 
"John the Baptist's head" — " His brother Philip's wife" — " The Bishop of Lon- 
don's charge." Here Julius Ccesar's is a complex name, in the possessive ; John 
and brother are in the possessive, without the sign, that being annexed to the 
-words Baptist and Philip, in apposition. In the last example, " London" is in the 
objective case, governed by of, and the 's annexed properly belongs to Bishop, gov- 
erned in the possessive by charge. In parsing the words separately, the transfer 
must, of course be so made. But the true reason for annexing 's to London is, 
that the whole phrase, " Bishop of London," is regarded as one term, governed in 
the possessive by charge, and may be so parsed. Thus, " A complex noun in the 
possessive case," &c. 

849. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of the posses- 
sive may be annexed to either; as, " I called at Smith's, the bookseller," or, "at 
Smith the bookseller's." But if, to such a phrase, the governing substantive is 
added, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the last ; as, " I called at 
Smith the bookseller's shop." 

850. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of more terms 
than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the name or first substan- 
tive ; as, " This Psalm is David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the people." — 
" That book is Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane." 

851. This mode of expression, however, is never elegant, and though sometimes 
used when the governing substantive is understood, yet it would be better to avoid 
it, and say, " This is a psalm of David, the king," &c, or, " This is one of the 
psalms of David," &c. But an expression like this can not, with any propriety, be 
used when the governing substantive is added. Thus, " David, the king, priest, 
and prophet of the people's psalm," would be intolerable. 

852. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different 
words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as, " He 
took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative," that is, "at 
the governor's house.'''' 

853. The s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, when the first word ends, 
and the following word begins, with an s, or when the use of it would occasion a 
disagreeable repetition of s-sounds ; as, " For righteousness' sake" — " For con- 
science' sake" — " For Jesus' sake" — u At Jesus' feet" (173). In other cases, such 
omission would generally be improper; as, " James' book" — "Miss' shoes," 
instead of, " James's book" — " Miss's shoes." 

854. A clause of a sentence should never come between the possessive case and 
the word by which it is governed ; thus, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she 
called him, excellent understanding," should be, " the excellent understanding of the 
farmer, as she called him." 

855. A noun governing the possessive plural, or two or more nouns severally in 

15* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the possessive singular, should not be plural unless the sense require it. Thus, 
" The men's health [not healths] suffered from the climate" — •' John's and William's 
wife [not wives] are of the same age." 

856. The possessive whosesoever is sometimes divided by interposing the govern- 
ing word ; as, " whose house soever." This, in general, however, is to be avoided, 
and to be admitted only when euphony and precision are thereby promoted (277). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substantive, and which is 
the one limited — where wrong, correct according to rule or observations. 

(839) Virtues reward. One mans loss is often another mans 
gain. Mans chief end is to glorify God. My ancestors virtue is not 
mine. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for 
mans advantage. On eagles wings. For Christ sake. For ten sake. 
Which dictionary do you prefer — Webster, Walker, or Johnson? 
-—(172) Asa his heart was perfect. John Thomson his book. Lucy 
Jones her book. 

(841) He was averse to the nation involving itself in war. Much 
depends on your pupil composing frequently. He being rich did 
not make him happy. I am opposed to him going on such an expe- 
dition. 

(842) That book is James book and that one is Roberts. That 
knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife. My book is old, 
but your book and Roberts book are new. Which is the best book, 
your book or my book ? 

(845) That landscape is a picture of my father. The work you 
speak of is one of Irving. Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton. That is a ring of my mother. 

(846) The world's government is not left to chance. The tree is 
known by the fruit of it. The commons' vote was against the meas- 
ure, but the lords' vote was in its favor. The weekly return of the 
day of the Lord is a blessing to man. The representatives house is 
now in session. The extent of the prerogative of the king of Eng- 
land is well understood. John's brother's wife's mother is sick. 
The severity of the sickness of the son of the king caused great 
alarm. Your brothers servant's situation is critical. 

(847) William's and Mary's reign. Cain and Abel's sacrifice 
were not the same. David and Solomon's reign were prosperous. 
John and William's wife are cousins. Men, women, and childrens 
shoes for sale. He cared for his father and also for his mother's 
interests. The Betsy and Speedwells cargoes were both saved. 

( 848) Messrs. Pratt's, Woodford's, & Co.'s bookstore is in New 



SYNTAX SUBJUNCTIVE. 175 

York. Thomson's & Company's office was on fire. Jack's trie 
Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. The bishop's of London's charge 
to his clergy. The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's palace. The secre- 
tary's of war report. 

(850) Please call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's. The 
parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's. He emula- 
ted Caesar the greatest general of antiquity's bravery. General 
Taylor, president of the United States, an excellent man and brave 
soldier's residence. 

(852) That house is Smith the poor man's friend. We spent an 
agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. The coach stop- 
ped at Mr. Brown, Henry's father. 

(853) James father arrived yesterday. Charles books are com- 
pletely spoiled. King James translators merely revised former trans- 
lations. For conscience's sake. For righteousness's sake. 

(854) They condemned the judge's in the case of Bard well decis- 
ion. The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shameful. 
Peter the Hermit's as he was called, opinion. 

(855) All men have talents committed to their charges. It is the 
duty of Christians to submit to their lots. We protest against this 
course, in our own names and in the names of our constituents. A 
father's and mother's loves to their children are very tender. The 
gentlemans and ladys healths are improving. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

857. Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is used in de- 
pendent clauses, when both contingency, or doubt, and futu- 
rity, are expressed; as, "If he continue to study he will 
improve." 

858. When contingency or doubt only, and not futurity, is im- 
plied, the indicative is used ; as, " If he has money he keeps it." 

859. Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the connectives, if, though, 
unless, except, whether, &c. ; but whether futurity is implied or not, must be gath- 
ered from the context. In general, when the sense is the same, with shall, will, or 
should prefixed to the verb, as without it, the subjunctive maybe used ; otherwise, 
not. Thus, in the preceding example, u If he continue," and, " If he shall con- 
tinue," mean the same thing. 

960. Formerly, the subjunctive was used to express contingency, or doubt, 
whether futurity was implied or not. Of this, the English Bible furnishes exam- 
ples in almost every page (See Job xx., 12-14), where present usage would require 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the indicative. The tendency, at present, is to the other extreme. The present or 
future-indicative, or past potential, is now more generally used instead of the pres- 
ent subjunctive (391), and this has led some grammarians to reject the subjunctive 
altogether, and to regard what was formerly called the present subjunctive, as an 
elliptical form of the future indicative, or past potential. It appears to be certain, 
however, that there are forms usually called the present subjunctive, established by 
the authority of the best writers of every age, not excepting even the present, 
which can not be disposed of in this way ; for example, " It is no matter whether 
this or that be in itself the less or the greater crime." — Lillo. — " The question is not 
whether man be a free agent." — Hobbes. — " If this be an error, it is a harmless one." 
In none of these can shall, or will, or should, be introduced, without changing or 
destroying the sense. In all of them, present usage would substitute is for be. It 
will not do, however, for the grammarian to set up a rule, by which established 
and reputable usage is condemned, though the present taste tends another way. 
Still, there are cases in which this change is inadmissible (390). 

861. Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty" — " Take 
heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." And some- 
times without a command ; as, " They shall bear thee up, lest thou 
dash thy foot against a stone." — u Is not this the fast that I have 
chosen — that thou bring the poor to thy house." 

862. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
the subjunctive mood ; as, " If he do but touch the hills, they shall 
smoke. But when future time is not implied, the indicative is used ; 
as, "If he does but whisper, every word is heard distinctly." 

863. The subjunctive mood is used to express a wish or desire ; as, " I wish I 
were at home"=" O, that he were wise !" 

864. A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the thing supposed or 
desired, is expressed by the past subjunctive ; as, " If my kingdom were of this 
world, then would my servants fight," implying, " It is not of this world." — " 0> 
that thou wert as my brother," implying, " Thou art not" (439-2). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What verbs in the following sentences, according to the rule, should be in the 
subjunctive mood, and what in the indicative ? — correct them accordingly — parse 
the sentences corrected. 

(857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely be 
put to death. We must go to-morrow unless it rains. There will 
be enough to do next week, if the weather is good. Though the 
sky be clear it is cold. He will maintain his cause though he loses 
his estate. We may get letters if the mail arrives in time. If John 
be come why did you not tell me ? If it snows all night the roads 
will be impassable. Ask John if he know when the legislature 
meets. If he know any thing, he surely knows, that unless he gets 



SYNTAX INFINITIVE. 177 

better he can not be removed. If thou be the Son of God, command 
that these stones be made bread. 

(861) Take care that the horse does not run away. See that thou 
dost it not. Let him that stand eth take heed lest he falls. Kiss the 
Son, lest he is angry. Reprove not a scorner, lest he hates thee. 

(862) If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great thank- 
fulness. If he does but run, he will soon overtake them. If he be 
but in health, I am content. O, that he was wise ! I wish I was at 
home. 

(864) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. If it was 
not so, I would have told you. If he was a year older, I would send 
him to school. Was gold more abundant, it would be of less value. 
If he was an impostor, he must have been detected. If I was he, I 
would accept the offer. Was I he, I would accept the offer. 



THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

865. Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by 
verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as " I desire to learn" — 
" A desire to learn" — " Anxious to learn." 

866. The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, and has the construction of both a 
noun and a verb. 

867. As a noun, the infinitive may be : 1. The subject of a verb 
(394) ; as, " To play is pleasant." 2. The object of a verb (802); 
as, " Boys love to play" 3. The predicate nominative after a cop- 
ulative verb (798) ; as, " He is to be married." 4. In apposition 
with another noun (670) ; as, " Spare, spare your friends the task, 
to read, to nod, to scoff, condemn" 5. The object of a preposition 
(819) ; as, " About to depart" — " What went ye out for to see ?" 

868. At the same time that the infinitive is used as a noun, it may have all the 
modifications of the verb in respect of time, government, or adjuncts, forming, with 
them, an abridged sentence, or clause, or phrase (653) ; as, " To see the sun at mid- 
night is impossible." Here, to see is modified by its object, the sun, and by the 
adjunct, at midnight, and the whole clause is the subject of is. Hence the fol- 
lowing — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

869. Rule 1. — One verb being the subject of another, is 
put in the infinitive ; as, " To study is profitable" (872). 

870. Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its object, or 
complement in the infinitive; as, "Boys love to play" — 
" They seem to study" 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

871. Verbs which take the infinitive as their object, are transitive verbs in the 
active voice, and the infinitive, either alone, or modified by other words, is equiva- 
lent to the objective case (802). Verbs which take the infinitive as their comple- 
ment, that is, in order to Jill out or complete, as it were, the idea intended, are 
intransitive or passive verbs, -which form a sort of modified copula between their 
subject and the infinitive following. Thus, " The watch seems to g-0"=" The 
watch is apparently going" (797). 

872. Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or the object of 
a verb, sometimes has a subject of its own in the objective case. 

873. In either construction, the infinitive, with its subject, is an abridged depend- 
ent clause (653) and when used as the subject, is introduced by for. Thus, Sub- 
ject — " For us to do so would be improper,"^-' That we should do so would be 
improper." Object — " I know him to be an honest man"=" I know that he is an 
honest man." Here the object of know is neither him, nor to be, &c, separately, 
but the whole clause, "him to be an honest man," taken together, equivalent to, 
" that he is an honest man." 

874. In many such sentences, the subject of the infinitive resembles the direct, 
and the infinitive itself the indirect, object of the preceding verb, as in the construc- 
tion (810). Hence, when the verb is changed into the passive form, the objective 
after the verb (which is also the subject of the infinitive), becomes the nominative to 
the verb, and the infinitive remains after it, like the indirect object (811). Thus, " I 
desired him to go." — Passive, " He was desired to go." 

875. Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate nomi- 
native after any verb as a copula ; as, " You are to blame 99 
(397). 

876. When used as a predicate nominative after the verb to be, the infinitive 
denotes— 

1. An equivalent expression ; as, " To obey is to enjoy." 

2. What is possible or obligatory; as, "Gold is to be found in California" — 
41 The laws are to be observed" 

3. What is settled and determined upon, and of course, future ; as, " The ship 
is to sail to-morrow." 

877. Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after 
the verbs bid, dare, nerd, make, see, hear, feel, and let, 
in the active voice, nor after let in the passive ; as, "I saw 
him do it" — " You need not go." 

878. To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only to euphony and 
usage, to may be inserted when harshness will not thereby be produced ; thus, 
" Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised." — McKenzie. 

879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verbs 
'perceive, behold, obs-erve, have, and know. 

880. When several infinitives come together in the same construction, the sign to 
expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted with those that follow; thus, " It is 



SYNTAX INFINITIVE. 179 

better to be a king and die, than to live and be a prince." This should never be 
done when either harshness or obscurity would be the result. 

881. To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infinitive itselfv 
Thus, " I have not written, and I do not intend to" is a colloquial vulgarism for> 
" I have not written, and I do not intend to write." 

882. Rule 6. — The infinitive is used to express the pur- 
pose, end, or design of the preceding act ; as, " Some who 
came to scoff, remained to pray ." Here, to scoff, and £o pray 
are not governed by came and remained ; but are put, with- 
out a governing word, to express the end for which they 
came and remained. 

883. This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by the phrase, " in 
order ;" and formerly was preceded by for ; as, " What went ye out /or to see f" 
This is now obselete. 

884. Rule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put 
after so as, too, or than ; as, " Be so good as to read this 
letter" — " Too old to learn" — " Wiser than to undertake it." 
Some consider this construction as elliptical, and that the in- 
finitive depends on a word understood. 

885. The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form, the reason 
of that which goes before, as, •' Base coward that thou art ! to flee !" " Ungrateful 
man! fo waste my fortune, rob me of my peace," &c. — "Must not one sigh, to 
reflect on so grave a subject." 

886. The infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, without a governing word ; as, 
" To say the truth, I was in fault." 

887. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I consider him [to be] an honest 
man." 

888. The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes expresses obligation 
or necessity ; as, " We have to do it," that is, " We must do it." 

889. The infinitive, in these several constructions, in parsing, may be briefly sta- 
ted thus : " The infinitive as the subject of " — " as the object of " — " as the 

predicate-nominative after " — " The infinitive of purpose — comparison — cause 

— used absolutely.''' 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except in its tense 
(920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign to. When there is no 
rule to authorize the omission, it should be inserted. 

(865) Strive learn. They obliged him do it. You ought not 
walk so fast. — (869) It is better live on a little than outlive a great 
deal. It is better to be a king and die than live and be a prince. 
— (870) He scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or be guilty of 
evasion. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

(877) You need not to be so serious. I have seen some young 
persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. He bid me to go 
home. The boys were all let to go at once. Let no man to think 
too highly of himself. They all heard him to say it. He was heard 
say it by everybody. Some one saw them to pass the house. They 
were seen pass the house. I have observed some satirists to use the 
term. Dare be wise* They were bid come into the house. — (881/ 
Be sure to write yourself and tell him to. And live as God designed 
me to. 

Point out the use of the infinitive in the following sentences, and show how it is 
governed. 

It too often happens that to be above the reach of want just places 
us within the reach of avarice. It does no good to preach generos- 
ity, or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor soul. He 
was born to be great. To accomplish these ends, savages resort to 
cunning. They thought to make themselves rich. Great desires 
are difficult to be gratified. Some people are difficult to please. To 
know ourselves, we must commence by knowing our own weaknesses. 
If we have not always time to read, we have always time to reflect- 
To be or not to be ? that is the question. 



THE PARTICIPLES. 

890. Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction of 
nouns, adjectives, and verbs (452, &c.) 

891. The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the 
subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-nominative after it (798) ; as, 
44 Saying is not doing." In the objective case, it may be the object 
of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819) ; as, " Avoid doing 
evil." — U There is pleasure in doing good." 

892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect participle 
(as well as the infinitive) of a copulative verb, is in the predicate-nominative; as, 
" His being an expert dancer 11 — " The crime of being a young man/ 1 &c. (799). 

893. The participle, as an adjective, expresses an attribute of a 
noun or pronoun, without affirmation ; as, " The sword hangs rusting 
on the wall." 

894. The participle, while used as a noun or adjective, may be 
modified in all respects as the verb (630). 

895. To participles used in. these ways, the rules of syntax for nouns, adjectives, 
and verbs, may of course be applied. 



SYNTAX PARTICIPLES. 



SPECIAL RULES. 



181 



896. Rule 1. — 'When the present or perfect participle is 
used as a noun, a noun before it is put in the possessive case 
(841); as, "Much depends on the pupiVs composing fre- 
quently." 

897. But a pronoun, in this construction, must be the possessive 
pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on your 
composing," &c. ; not yours. 

898. In many cases, the nominative or objective case before the present partici- 
ple as an adjective, will express nearly the same idea. Thus, " Much will depend 
on the pupil's composing/' and "Much will depend on the pupil composing," mean 
substantially the same thing. Still, the construction is different : in the first, the 
dependence is on the composing, in the second it is on the pupil ; and though in 
these examples the sense is nearly the same, yet there are often examples in which 
the sense is entirely different. Thus, " What do you think of my horse's running 
to-day ?" implies he has run, and asks, " How do you think he ran ?" But " What 
do you think of my horse running to-day ?" implies he has not run, and asks, " Do 
you think he should run?" 

899. Rule 2. — When the present participle, used as a noun, 
has an article or adjective before it, the preposition op fol- 
lows ; as, " By the observing of these rules." — " This was a 
complete forsaking of the truth." 

900. In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and can not be 
modified as a verb. Hence we can not say, " By the observing carefully of these 
rules f because carefully, being an adverb, can not modify a noun. But we can 
say, "By the careful observing of," &c. ; because careful, being an adjective, can 
modify a noun. Or we can say, "By observing these rules carefully," &c. ; be- 
cause the and of being both removed, observing" can be modified as a verb. 

901. Both the article or adjective, and of, may be omitted ; but one can not be 
omitted without the other. By this omission the participle becomes a verbal or 
participial noun, and can be modified as the verb (631). 

902. So here, again, in either of these constructions, the sense --in many cases 
will be the same. Thus. " By the observing of these rules he became eminent," 
and " By observing these rules he became eminent," express the same idea. But, 
as in the other case, so here, there are examples in which the sense is entirely dif- 
ferent. Thus, " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philoso- 
pher," and " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher," mean 
entirely different things. So " At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and " At 
hearing the ear, they will obey." The first is sense — the last, nonsense. 

In such cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the following — 

903. Rule 3. — When the verbal noun expresses something 
of which the noun following is the doer, it should have the arti- 
cle and the preposition ; as, " It was said in the hearing of the 
- 16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

witness." But when it expresses something of which the noun 
following is not the doer, but the object, both should be omit- 
ted ; as, " The court spent some time in hearing the witness." 

904. Rule 4. — The past participle, and not the past tense, 
should he usvd after the auxiliaries have and be ; as, " T have 
written" (not wrote) — " The letter is written" (not wrote). 

905. So, also, the past participle should not be used for the past 
tense ; as, " He ran," not run — "I saw," not seen— " 1 did," not done, 

906. Iii many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the present continuance 
of the act, but of the result of the act in a finished state* the present participle active 
has a. passive as well as an active sense ; and is used with the auxiliary verb to be, 
to express the present passive progressively ; as, " The house is building" (not 
being built). When, in such verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive sense — 
or where the use of it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, a different form of 
expression should be used (456, &c.) 

907. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no dependence on any 
other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance" (770). 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Tn the following sentences, correct the errors, and give a reason for the change : 

(892) Its being me need make no difference. We could not be 
sure of its being him. The whole depended on its being them. 

(896) Man rebelling against his Maker, brought him into ruin. Jo- 
seph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled for good. God 
upholding all things, is an evidence of his power. He being a great 
man did not make him a happy man. A man being poor does not 
make him miserable. — (898) What do you think of my horse running 
to-day ? Did he run well ? What think you of my horse's running 
to-day ? Will it be safe ? 

(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. By 
the obtaining wisdom you will command respect. By obtaining of 
wisdom you will command respect. This was equal to a rejecting 
the proposal. This was equal to rejecting of the proposal. The 
learning anything well requires great application. Learning of any- 
thing well requires application. Meekness is manifested in suffering 
of ills patiently — in the suffering ills patiently — in the suffering of 
ills patiently. In the patient suffering ills — in patient suffering of ills. 
Because of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. 
— (903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of sun- 
dry papers, much time was spent. The greatest pain is suffered in 
the cutting of the skin. 



SYNTAX TENSES. 183 

(904) He has broke his cup. I have drank enough. The tree 
was shook by the wind. The tree has fell. Some one has took my 
pen. I seen the man who done it. He has began the work. Some 
fell by the wayside and was trode down. The French language is 
spoke in every part of Europe. 
* The following' sentences from E. Everett, Daniel Webster, Irving, N. A. Review, 
Cooper, Bancroft, Thomas Brown, Sir G. M'Kenzie, Butler, &c have been changed 
into modem newspaper English. Restore them, according to (906) : — 

The fortress was being built. The spot where this new and strange 
tragedy was being acted. An attempt was being made in the Eng- 
lish parliament. The magnificent church now being erected in the 
city of New York. While these things were being transacted in 
England. While the ceremony was being performed. The court 
was then being held. And still be being done and never done. Wheat 
is being sold at affair price. Gold is being found in great quantities. 
A report is now being prepared. Goods are now being sold off at 
first cost. While the necessary movement was being made. 



CONNEXION OF TENSES. 

908. Rule XVII.— In the use of verbs , and words that 
in 'point of time relate to each other, the order of time must 
be observed; as, "I have known him these many years" — 
not, " I know him these many years ;" nor, " I knew him 
these many years." 

909. Remark. — The particular tense necessary to be used must depend upon the 
sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases. But it may be proper 
to observe — 

910. An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense ; 
as, " The stoics believed that ' all crimes are equal' " (403). 

911. The present-perfect, and not the present tense should be used in. connexion 
with words denoting an extent of time continued to the present; thus, " They con- 
tinue with me now three days," should be ''hove continued,"' &c. (407). 

912. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used in connexion with words 
which express past time ; thus, " I have formerly mentioned his attachment to 
study," should be " I formerly mentioned," &c. 

913. To express an event simply as past, without relation to any other point of 
time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time mentioned, the past 
tense is used ; as, " God created the world." — '• In the beginning. God created the 
world." Exercises in (912) are examples. 

914. When we wish to represent an event as past at or before a certain past 
time referred to, the verb must be put in the past-perfect tense. Thus, when we 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

say, " The vessel had arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, at nine o'clock the arriving 
of the vessel was past. But when we say, " The vessel arrived at nine o'clock," 
we mean, the arriving of the vessel was then present. 

915. It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event be past at the 
time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that in pointing out the time of a 
past event, two points or periods of time are often mentioned — the one for the pur- , 
pose of ascertaining the other. Thus, "We arrived an hour before sunset." Here 
the past- perfect is not used, though the arriving is represented as past before a past 
time mentioned, viz., sunset, because sunset is not the time referred to, but is men- 
tioned in order to describe that time ; and at the time described, the event, arriving, 
was not past, but present. If in this example we omit the word "hour," and 
merely say " before sunset/' the construction will be the same. This will show that 
it is correct to say, " Before I went to France I visited England," because the visiting 
of England is represented as present, and not past at the time indicated by the word 
before. But if the event mentioned is represented as past at the time indicated by 
the word before, or if the sentence is so arranged that only one point of past time is 
indicated at which the event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be used ; as, 
" They had arrived before we sailed. " — " They arrived after we had sailed."— 11 1 
had visited England when we returned to America." 

916. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can, should never 
be associated in the same sentence ; and care must be taken that the subsequent 
verb be expressed in the same tense with the antecedent verb (344) ; thus, "Irnay 
or can do it now, if I choose" — " I might or could do it now, if I chose" — " I shall 
or will do it, when I can" — " 1 may do it, if I can" — " I once could do it, but I 
would not" — " I would have done it then, but I could not." — " I mention it to him, 
that he may stop if he choose" — " I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he 
chose" — " I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop" — " I had mentioned it to 
him, that he might stop" — ' : I had mentioned it to him, that he might have stopped 
had he chosen." 

917. In dependent clauses, the past-perfect indicative or potential is used to ex- 
press an event antecedent to, but never contemporary with, or subsequent to, that 
expressed by a verb in the past tense in the leading clause. Thus, we can say, " I 
believed he had done it," but not, " I hoped he had done it;" because belief may 
refer to what is past, but hope always refers to something future. See also the 
infinitive (920, 921). 

918. When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty (363), it may 
be followed by the present or present-perfect ; as, " You should study, that you may 
become learned." 

919. The indicative present is frequently used after the words when, till, be- 
fore, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action (406) ; as, 
" When he comes, he will be welcome." When placed before the perfect indica- 
tive, they denote the completion of a future action or event ; as, " He will never be 
better till he has felt the pangs of poverty." 

920. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present tense (446). when it 
expresses what is contemporary in point of time with its governing verb, or subse- 
quent to it; as, " He appeared to be a man of letters." — " The apostles were deter- 
mined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs denoting hope, desire, intention, or 
command, must be followed by the present infinitive, and not the perfect (451). 

921 . But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is antecedent to the 
time of the governing verb ; as, :' Romulus is said to have founded Rome." 



SYNTAX TENSES. 185 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

(910) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst. The 
philosopher said that heat always expanded metals. He said that 
truth was immutable. 

(911) I know the family more than twenty years. I am now at 
school six months. My brother was sick four weeks, and is no bet- 
ter. He tells lies long enough. They continue with me now three 
days. 

(912) He has lately lost an only son. He has been formerly very 
disorderly. I have been at London last year, and seen the king last 
summer. I have once or twice told the story to our friend before he 
went aw r ay. He has done it before yesterday. Some one has long 
ago told the same story. 

(914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on his 
voyage of discovery. When we finished our lessons, we went out 
to play. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. When we 
had arrived at the palace, we delivered the letters w T hich we previ- 
ously procured. It was a strange thing to me, for I never saw such 
a thing before. When I came, he was gone. 

(916) I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in. that par- 
ticular. Ye will not come to me, that ye might have life. Be wise 
and good, that you might be happy. He was told his danger, that 
he may shun it. 

(917) We had hoped that Lord Nugent would have been able to 
collect much new and interesting information. Columbus hoped that 
he would have rendered the natives tributary to the crown of Spain. 
We expected that they would have come to-day. We trusted that 
it had been He who should have redeemed Israel. 

(918) He should study diligently, that he might become learned. 
We should respect those persons, because they continued long at- 
tached to us. 

(919) We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As soon as 
he shall return we will recommence our studies. A prisoner is not 
accounted guilty till he be convicted. 

(920) From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to 
have been a man of learning. Our friends intended to have met us. 
He was afraid he would have died. 

(921) Kirstall abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an extensive 
building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is said to be born in the 
nine hundred and twenty-sixth year before Christ. 

16* 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

922. Rule XVIII .— Adverbs modify verbs, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs; as, u John speaks distinctly; 
he is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly.*' 

[See Etymology of Adverbs, 523, &c] 

923. A few adverbs sometimes modify nouns or pronouns (526) ; 
as, "Not only the men, but the women also, were present." — "I, 
even I, do bring a flood." — Gen. vi. 17. 

924. Sometimes an adverb modifies a preposition, and sometimes an adjunct or 
clause of a sentence (525); as, "He sailed nearly round the globe" — "Just below 
the ear" — " Verily I say unto you." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

925. Rule 1. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives, nor 

adjectives as adverbs (687). 

Thus, *• The above [preceding] extract." — " Thine often [frequent'] infirmities." 
— " The then ministry," for " The ministry then in power." — " It seems strangely 
[strange]" &c. So, also, " He writes beautiful [beautifully]." 1 — " It is done good 
[welly— See (686). 

926. The adverbs hence, thence, whence, meaning from this place, from that 
place, from which place, properly should not have from before them, because it is 
implied. But the practice of the best writers has so sanctioned the use of it, that 
the omission of it would now sometimes appear stiff and affected. 

927. After verbs of motion, the adverbs hither, thither, whither, are now used 
only in solemn style. In ordinary discourse, here, there, and where, are used instead 
of them ; as, "We came here" — " They walked there" — " Where did he go ?" 

928. Where should not be used for in which, except the reference is to place. 
Thus, " They framed a protestation, where [in which] they repeated their former 
claims." 

929. The adverbs now, then, when, where, in such phrases as till now, till then 
since when, to ivhere, &c, are sometimes used by good writers as nouns. This, 
however, is rare in prose, and should not be imitated. Jn poetry it is more com- 
mon (1048). 

930. Of this character are the expressions at once, far from hence, &c, but these 
are now established idioms, and in parsing are regarded as one word (535-6). 

931. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an introductory exple- 
tive ; as, " There came to the beach" (529). 

932. Rule 2. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirma- 
tive, and should not be used unless affirmation is intended ; as, 
" I can not drink no [any] more," or, " I can drink no more/' 

933. One negative is sometimes connected with another implied in the negative 
prefixes dis f un, im, in, il. ir, &c. ; as, " You are not unacquainted with his merits," 



SYNTAX ADVERBS. 187 

that is, " You are acquainted," &c. In this way a pleasing variety of expression is 
sometimes produced. But the word only with the negative, preserves the nega- 
tion; as, "He was not only illiberal, but even covetous."' 

934. The adverbs nay, no, yea, yes, often stand alone as a negative or affirma- 
tive answer to a question : as, u Will he go ?" — " No" = " He will not go." — " Is 
he at home ?" — " Yes" = " He is at home." Amen is an affirmative adverb, equiv- 
alent to " Be it so," or "May it be so." 

935. No before a noun is an adjective ; as, " No man" Before an adjective or 
adverb in the comparative degree it is an adverb ; as, " No taller" — " No sooner." 
In all other cases the proper negative is not ; as, " He will not come" — "Whether 
he come or not." 

POSITION. N 

936. Rule 3. — Adverbs are for the most part placed before 
adjectives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the first 
auxiliary in the compound form ; as, " He is very attentive, 
behaves well, and is much esteemed." 

937. This rule applies generally to adjunct phrases as well as to 
adverbs (825). 

938. This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are many ex- 
ceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, which is not 
liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the meaning with most 
precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, or at 
some distance after it. 

939. Never, often, always, sometimes, generally precede the verb. Not, with 
the participle or infinitive, should generally be placed before it (500). 

940. The improper position of the adverb only often occasions ambiguity. This 
will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by placing it at 
the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by placing 
it before the predicating term ; and when it refers to a subject, by placing it after its 
name or description ; as, " Only acknowledge thine iniquity." — " The thoughts of 
his heart are only evil." — " Take nothing for your journey but a staff only." These 
observations will generally be applicable to the words merely, solely, chiefly, first, 
at least, and perhaps to a few others. 

941. To, the sign of the infinitive in prose, should never be separated by placing 
an adverb immediately after it. Thus, " They are accustomed to carefully study 
their lessons," should be ** to study carefully," or " carefully to study," &c. 

942. The adverb enough is commonly placed after the adjective which it modi- 
fies ; as, " A large enough house" — " A house large enough for all." 

943. Ever is sometimes improperly used for never. Thus, " Ask me ever so 
much," should be, "Ask me never so much" — that is, so much as never before. 
" Charmers charming never so sweetly" — that is, so sweetly as never before. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

As adverbs are indeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in their posi- 
tion, or in using as adverbs words that are not so, or in using adverbs where other 
words are required. Correct the errors in the following :— * 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(925) They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 
The then emperor was noted for his cruelty. He was befriended 
by the then reigning duke. She walks graceful. He spoke eloquent. 
She did that work good. Our friends arrived safely. The boat 
moves rapid. His expressions sounded harshly. She is a remarka- 
ble pretty girl. My foot slipped, and I pretty near fell down. 

(926) He departed from thence into a desert place. I will send 
thee far from hence to the Gentiles. From hence ! away ! 

(927) Where art thou gone ? And he said unto me, " Come up 
here." The city is near, oh! let me escape there. Where I am, 
there ye can not come. 

(928) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. 
The condition where I found him was deplorable. He went to Lon- 
don last year, since when I have not seen him. 

(932) I can not do no more. He will never be no taller. He did 
not say nothing at all. Neither he nor no one else can do that. I 
have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor 
from his friend. I never did repent for doing good, nor shall not 
now. I can not see to write no more. Nothing never can justify in- 
gratitude. — (935) Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. 
936) We should not be overcome totally by present events. We 
always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is impossible con- 
tinually to be at work. Not only he found her employed, but pleased 
and tranquil also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear care- 
fully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. They seemed to 
be nearly dressed alike. The bark Clarissa is soon expected to sail. 
—(937) I wished that any one would hang me a hundred times. 

(938) The women contributed all their rings and jewels volunta- 
rily, to assist the government. He determined to invite back the 
king, and to call together his friends. — (939) Having not known or 
having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. 

(940) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. By greatness, 
I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the distinctness 
of a whole view. Only you have I known of all the nations of the 
earth. In promoting the public good, we only discharge our duty. 
He only read one book, not two. He read the book only, but did 
not keep it. He only read the book, but not the letter. He chiefly 
spoke of virtue, not of vice. He only reads English, not French. 

(941) Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize the senti- 
ments advanced in all the books they read. To make this sentence 
perspicuous, it would be necessary to entirely remodel it. 



SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 189 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

944. Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words or sen- 
tences (561). 

945. Words of the same class, having a similar relation to another 
to which they belong, are connected by a conjunction. Thus — 

1. Nouns or pronouns ; as, " James and John and / are here."' 

2. Adjectives ; as, " A ptmdent, brave, and honorable man." 

3. Verbs ; as, " Caesar came and saw and conquered." 

4. Adverbs, or adverbs and adjuncts ; as, " He won the prize fairly and honor- 

ably" or '■'fairly and with honor" 

5. Prepositions ; as, ** To and from the city" — " Up and down' the hill." 

946. Verbs connected have the same nominative ; as, "James reads and writes" 

947. Nouns or pronouns connected in the nominative case, either as subjects or 
attributes, are related as such to the same verb ; as, " John and James are cousins" 
— " He is a gentleman and a scholar" 

948. Nouns or pronouns connected in the possessive case are governed by the 
same noun ; as, "John's and James's books." 

949. Nouns or pronouns, connected in the objective case, are governed by the 
same verb or preposition ; as, " He studies grammar and logic" — " Give the books 
to him and me." 

950. When nominatives belong to different verbs, or verbs to different nomina- 
tives, the conjunction connects the sentences, not the words ; as, "John reads and 
James writes." 

951. Simple sentences or clauses are connected by conjunctions, 
so as to form one compound sentence; as, " I said that ye are gods ; 
but ye shall die. 11 

952. Similar sentences, whether dependent or independent, are connected by the 
conjunctions and, or, nor, but, ye f , &c. 

953. Dependent members or clauses are connected with their leading clauses by 
such conjunctions, or other connective words, as may properly indicate the relation 
intended (962 and 963). 

954. Conjunctions are frequently understood between the words or sentences 
connected; as, " Csesar came, saic, and conquered." — The men, women, and chil- 
dren, were present." — " It is the part of those that are great to give — of those that 
are poor to ask." — * Learning collects materials ; wisdom applies them." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

955. Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, " Do 
good, and seek peace." — " Honor thy father and mother P 

[This rule applies to the infinitive and participles.] 

956. Verbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are generally also in the 
same form (474) ; as, " He reads and writes" (not, does icrite). 

957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by a conjunction, but having a different 
construction, may be in different moods and tenses ; as, " I read that I may learn." 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

958. When two or more verbs in the compound tenses, or in the progressive or 
emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are connected, the auxiliary expressed with 
the first, may be understood to the rest ; as, " He can neither read, nor write."— 
" Diligence should be commended and rewarded." Still, however, the repetition of 
the auxiliary is often more emphatic ; as, " They shall come, and they shall declare 
his truth." 

959. Verbs of the same mood, tense, or form, connected as a compound predi- 
cate (627), have the nominative expressed with the first, and understood to the rest ; 
as, " Caesar came, sate, and conquered." But — 

960. When verbs connected are not of the same mood, tense, or form, and espe- 
cially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but, though, yet, is intended, the nom- 
inative is frequently repeated ; as, "He came, but he would not stay." But still — 

961. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance with, per- 
haps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are many exceptions. 
The object aimed at is to secure euphony and perspicuity ; and when these are 
preserved without repeating the nominative, it may be omitted ; as, " The two 
charges had been, and still are, united in one person." — North British Review. 

962. After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, the conjunction that is 
properly used — not lest, but, but that ; as, " I do not doubt that he is honest" 
— 'I am afraid that he will die." Also, ivhat should never be used for that. 
Thus, " He will not believe but what I am to blame," should be, " but that I am to 
blame." 

963. Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of 

a sentence, require corresponding connectives in the subsequent 

one; thus — 

1. In clauses or words simply connected — 

Both requires and (567) ; as, " Both he and I came." 

Either or (570) ; as, " Either he or I will come.' 

Neither nor (570) ; as, " Neither he nor I came." 

Whether or; as, " Whether he or I came." 

Though yet ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

Not only but also ; as, " Not only he but also his brother goes." 

2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 

The comparative degree requires than ; as, " He is taller than I am." 
Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." 

Else than ; as, " What else do you expect than this ?" 

As as (expi'essing equality) ; as, " He is as tall as I am." 

As so (expressing equality) ; as, "As thy day is, so shall thy 

strength be." 

So as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, " He is not so 

learned as his brother." 

So that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is so weak that he 

can not walk." 

Such as (expressing similarity) ; as, " He or such as he." 

For as and so, in comparison, see 531. For as, sometimes regarded as a relative, 
see 271 — as a connective of words in apposition, 674. For the infinitive after so as, 
see 884. 



SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 191 

964. And, or, nor, do not require the corresponding antecedent, and though does 
not always require yet. By poetic license (1048-5), or and nor are sometimes 
used as antecedents, instead of either, neither (570). 

965. In sentences implying comparison, there is commonly an 
ellipsis in the second member, after than and as ; " My punishment 
is greater than [that is which] I can bear." — tk My punishment is as 
great as [that is which'] I can bear." And sometimes in sentences 
not implying comparison, after though and if; as, "• Though [it is] 
coarse, it is good." — " He is kind, if [he is] sincere" (977-7). 

966. A relative after than is put in the objective case; as, " Satan, than whom 
none higher sat." This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this 
case, some regard than as a preposition. It is probably only a case of simple 
enallage (1044-4). 

967. Rule 3. — When a subsequent clause or part of a sen- 
tence is common to two different but connected antecedent 
clauses, it must be equally applicable to both ; as, " That 
work always has been, and always will be, admired?' — " He 
is as tall, though not so handsome, as his brother " 

968. When this rule is violated, the correction is made, either — 

1. By altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subsequent may be ap- 
plicable to both. Thus, " The story has and will be believed," is not correct, 
because, though we can say, will be believed, we can not say, has be believed. It 
should be, " The story has been, and will be, believed," or — 

2. If this can not be done, we may complete the construction of the first part by 
annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave the subsequent of the second under- 
stood. Thus, "He was more beloved but not so much admired as Cynthio," is not 
correct, because we can not say, " He was more beloved as Cynthio." It should 
be, " He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired." 

969. The principle of this rale applies to the appropriate selection of words as 
well as to their construction ; thus, " This doctrine is founded and consistent with 
the truth," should be, "founded upon, and consistent with," &c. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences point out the conjunctions, the words or sentences 
connected by them — see whether they correspond, according to the rules, and if 
not, correct and give a reason for the change. 

(955) He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the breast of 
a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. If he under- 
stand the subject and attends to it, he can scarcely fail of success. 
Enjoying health and to live in peace are great blessings. Be more 
anxious to acquire knowledge than about showing it. Be more anx- 
ious about acquiring knowledge than to show it. 

You and me are great friends. This is a small matter between 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

you and I. My father and him are very intimate. He is taller than 
me ; but I am older than him. 

(956) He reads and writeth well. He reads and does write well. 
He reads and is writing well ? Does he not read and writes well ? 
Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him. 
Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life. 

(958) He can neither read nor can write. I will come and will 
see you, and will tell you the whole story. He should have written, 
or should have sent, or should have come himself. 

(960) Can these persons consent to such a proposal, and will con- 
sent to it ? How distinguished for talents he is, and how useful 
might be. He might have been happy and now is convinced of it. 
He could command his temper, though would not. 

(962) I do not deny but he has merit. They were afraid lest you 
would be offended. We were apprehensive lest some accident had 
happened to him. We can not deny but what he was ill-treated. 
We can not doubt but what he is well. I can not see but what he 
is well. 

(963-1) It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not ex- 
plain it. The relations are so uncertain, as that they require much 
examination. The one is equally deserving as the other. I must be 
so candid to own that I have been mistaken. He would not do it 
himself nor let me do it. He was as angry as he -could not speak. 
So as thy days so shall thy strength be. Though he slay me so will 
I trust in him. He must go himself or send his servant. There is 
no condition so secure as can not admit of change. He is not as 
eminent and as much esteemed as he thinks himself to be. 

(963-2) He has little more of the scholar besides the name. Be 
ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. They had 
no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies. These 
savage people seemed to have no other element but war. Such men 
that act treacherously ought to be avoided. He gained nothing 
further by his speech, but only to be commended for his eloquence. 
This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 

(967) I always have and I always shall be of this opinion. He is 
bolder but not so wise as his companion. Sincerity is as valuable 
and even more so than knowledge. Their intentions might and prob- 
ably were good. The reward has already or will hereafter be given 
to him. Will it be urged that these books are as old or even older 
than tradition. This book is preferable and cheaper than the other. 
He takes no care nor interest in the matter. 






SYNTAX INTERJECTIONS. 193 



INTERJECTIONS. 

970. Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical 
connexion with the other words in a sentence (556). 

971. After interjections, pronouns of the first person are commonly 
in the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; as, 
"Ah me !" — " O thou!" 

972. Iii neither of these, however, does the case depend on the interjection. The 
objective is commonly thought to be governed by a word understood ; thus, " Ah 
[pity] me!" — "Ah [what will become of '] me!" The nominative is commonly 
the nominative of the person addressed (773). 

GENERAL RULE. 

973. In every sentence, the words employed, and the order 
in which they are arranged, should be such, as clearly and 
p?'operly to express the idea intended; and at the same ti?ne, 
all the parts of the sentence should correspond, and a regu- 
lar and dependent construction be preserved throughout. 

974. This may be regarded as a general rule, applicable to every case, and there- 
fore comprehending all the preceding. Though these are so full and minute as to 
embrace almost everything belonging to the proper construction of sentences, yet 
there will sometimes occur instances of impropriety in the use, and arrangement, 
and connexion of words, for the avoiding or correcting of which no very specific 
rules can be given. 

975. Among the evils to be guarded against under this general rale, are the fol- 
lowing : — 

1. The use of words which do not correctly or properly convey the idea intended, 

or which convey another with equal propriety. 

2. The arrangement of words and clauses in such a way, that their relation to 

other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to be perceived. 

3. The separating of adjuncts (541) from their principals, and placing them so 

that they may be joined to words to "which they do not belong (832). 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their antecedents (755 and 

759). 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or possessive pro- 
noun, especially in indirect discourse (1130). 

EXERCISES. 

The following sentences are not grammatically incorrect, but from some of the 
causes mentioned above, are obscure, inelegant, ambiguous, or unintelligible. Let 
the pupil point out the error and correct it, and give a reason for the correction. 

The son said to his father that he had sinned against Heaven. A 
farmer went to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had gored his ox. 
17 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Greeks fearing to be surrounded on all sides wheeled about and 
halted with the river on their backs. Nor was Philip wanting to 
corrupt Demosthenes, as he had most of the leading men of Greece. 
Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip the father of Alex- 
ander, as well as himself, for whom he first opened the way into 
Asia. Belisarius was general of all the forces under Justinian the 
First, a man of rare valor. Lisias promised his father never to 
abandon his friends. Carthage was demolished to the ground so 
that we are unable to say where it stood, at this day. Thus ended 
the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Punic war, 
- and two after it had been begun. Claudius was canonized among 
the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a man. He was at a 
window in Litchfield, where a party of the royalists had fortified 
themselves, taking a view of the cathedral. 

976. Another class of improprieties arises from the improper omission of words, 
by which the grammatical construction of a sentence is broken up. As a general 
rule, the fewer the words are by which we express our ideas, the better, provided 
the meaning is clearly brought out. This may often be done without using all the 
words necessary to the full grammatical form of a sentence, and hence, as the ten- 
dency always is to abbreviate speech, such words as can be spared, according to 
the usage of the language, are properly omitted. This omission is called 

ELLIPSIS (1044-1). 

Respecting the use of this figure, nothing more definite can be laid down than 
what is contained in the following 

SPECIAL RULES. 

977. Rule 1. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is ad- 
missible when they can be supplied by the mind with such 
certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense. Thus — 

Instead of saying, " He was a learned man, and he was a wise 
man, and he was a good man," we may say, " He was a learned, 
wise, and good man." 

978. According to common usage, an ellipsis of the different parts 
of speech is allowed in the following cases, viz. :— 

1. Noun and Pronoun. — When two or more things are asserted of the same 
subject, the noun or pronoun is expressed before the first verb, and omitted before 
the rest. Also, when the same noun or pronoun is the object of several verbs, it is 
omitted after all except the last ; as, " I love, fear, and respect him," instead of, "I 
love him, /fear Mm, and /respect him." 

2. A noun is frequently omitted after the comparative degree ; as, " I will pull 
down my barns, and build greater [barns]." 

3. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the noun is omitted 



SYNTAX ELLIPSIS. 196 

after all except the last ; as, " A great, wise, and good man," for, u A great man, a 
wise man, and a good man." 

4. Adjective and Article — When an adjective qualifies two or more nouns, 
it is omitted before all except the first only ; as, " Good qualities and actions" — 
" Happy boys and girls" — " He is an honest, learned, and well-bred man," for, " an 
honest, a learned, and a well-bred man." 

5. Verbs. — A verb is often omitted after its subject, preceded by the compara- 
tive degree ; as, " He is wiser than I [am]" — " I am younger than he [is]." 

6. When several clauses come together, having the same predicate verb, the verb 
is often expressed in the first, and omitted in the rest ; as, " The Italians have imi- 
tated the Latins, the English the Italians, and the Americans the English." Some- 
times it is omitted in the first, and expressed in the last ; as, " Not only men, but 
nations, imitate one another." 

7. The verb to be, with its subject, in dependent clauses, is often omitted after 
the connectives, if, though, yet, when, &c. ; as, '■ Study, if [ii is] neglected, becomes 
irksome." — " Though [he was] poor, he was honest" (965). 

8. In poetry, verbs which express address or answer, are often omitted ; as, " To 
him the prince [replied]." Also, when the words connected readily indicate what 
the verbs must be, if expressed ; as '•' I'll hence to London" — " I'll in" — " Away, 
old man !'' — Shahs. — "Up, up, Glenarkin !" — W. Scott. 

9. The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after the auxili- 
ary, when the same verb is used in the first clause; as, M You have read, but I have 
not [read]." Also, verbs connected in the same voice, mood, and tense, having the 
auxiliary with the first, omit it with the rest ; as, " He will be loved and respected 
for his virtues." 

10. Adverb. — When an adverb modifies more words than one, it is placed only 
with the last ; as, " He spoke and acted gracefully." 

11. Preposition. — When the same preposition connects two or more subset 
quent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually omitted before all 
except the first as, " Over the hills and the valleys" — " Through woods and wilds." 

12. Conjunction. — When several words and clauses come together in the same 
construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely, sometimes between 
each pah*, and sometimes before all except the last; as, " He caused the blind to 
see, the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the lepers to be cleansed." — " We ran 
hither and thither, seeking novelty and change — sympathy and pastime — commu- 
nion and love.'* — " Youth is the season of joy, of bliss, of strength and pride." 

13. Interjection. — The interjections are never omitted, but, in the expression 
of sudden emotion, all but the most important words are commonly omitted ; as, 
" Well done !" for, " That is well done !" Also, after interjections, there is often 
an ellipsis of the obvious word; as, " O for a lodge," &c, that is, " O how I long 
for a lodge," &c. — " A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse !" that is, " Bring 
me a horse. I would give my kingdom for a horse." 

979. Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not allowable when it 
would obscure the sentence, iveaTcen its force, or be attended 
with an impropriety ; as, " We speak that we do know," 
for that which, &c. 

980. Id general, no word should be omitted by ellipsis, that is ne- 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cessary to the usual construction or harmony of a sentence, or to 
render the meaning perspicuous. 

981. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, should always be repeated when the 
w r ords with which they stand connected are used emphatically. Under such cir- 
cumstances, even nouns, adjectives, and verbs, must often be repeated : as, " Not 
only the year, but the day and the hour were appointed." 

982. It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antecedent to a rela- 
tive, and it is always so, to omit a relative when it is in the nominative. 

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to the sense : — 
(977-1) Cicero was an eloquent man, an able man, a generous 
man, and he was a truly patriotic man. Avarice and cunning may 
gain an estate, but avarice and cunning can not gain friends. 
I venerate him, I respect him, I love him, on account of his virtues. 
— (977-4) He has an affectionate brother and an affectionate sister. 
(977-8) Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence to be strengthened 
and to be confirmed by principle. Perseverance in laudable pursuits 
will reward all our toils, and will produce effects beyond our calculation. 
(977-9) We often commend imprudently, as well as censure impru- 
dently. — (977-10) Changes are almost constantly taking place in men 
and in manners, in opinions and in customs, in private fortunes and 
in public conduct. — (977-1 and 8) He is temperate, he is disinter- 
ested, he is benevolent. He regards his word, but thou dost not 
regard it. We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 

In the following sentences, supply the words improperly omitted, and state why 
they should be restored : — 

(979) We are naturally inclined to praise who praise us, and to flatter 
who flatter us. Who best can suffer best can do. A beautiful garden 
and trees were sold. His honor, interest, religion, were all embarked 
in this undertaking. Many days and even weeks pass away unim- 
proved. The captain had several men died in his ship. His con- 
duct is not scandalous, and that is the best can be said of it. They 
enjoy a free constitution and laws. That is a property most men 
have, or at least may attain. This property has or will be sold. You 
suppose him younger than I. It requires few talents to which most 
men are not born, or at least may not acquire. He may be said to 
have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently entitled to the re- 
ward. The people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. 
I have purchased a house and orchard. A noble spirit disdaineth the 
malice of fortune ; his greatness of soul is not to be cast down. 



SYNTAX PARSING. 197 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

9S3. Syntactical parsing includes etymological, and 
adds to it a statement of the relation in which words stand 
to each other, and the rules according to which they are 
combined in phrases and sentences. 

Before parsing a sentence syntactically, it should first be analyzed, 
as directed (658), and exemplified (659). 

MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

u The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examined, affords a 
thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent 
hand by which it was created." 

This sentence contains all the parts of speech except the interjection. It is parsed 
etymologically (581 and 582), and analyzed (659-7), which see. It may now be 
parsed syntactically, as follows : — 

The is the definite article ; it belongs to plant or animal (711), and 

shows these words to be limited. — Rule III., 2. " The article the is 
put," &c. (707). 

minutest . . is an adjective, compared here by er and est, superlative, and quali- 
fies plant or animal. — Rule II., 1. " An adjective or participle," 
&c. (676). 

plant .... is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of affords 
and obliges. — Rule VI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. (760). 

or is a disjunctive conjunction, connecting as alternates plant and 

animal (569). — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. (944). 

animal ... is a noun, neuter, in the nominative singular — same as plant — and 
connected with it by or. 

if is a conjunction ; it connects its clause with the preceding as a con- 
dition. — Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. (944). 

it (understood) is a third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative 

singular ; it stands for plant or animal. — Rule IV., 3. " When a 
pronoun refers," &c. (730) ; and is the subject of is examined. — Rule 
VI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. (760). 

is examined is a verb, transitive, regular,* in the present indicative, passive, ex- 
pressing an act done to its subject it, with which it agrees. — Rule 
VIII. "A verb agrees," &c. (776). 

attentively . is an adverb, derived from attentive, and compared by more and 
most ; it modifies is examined. — Rule XVI EI. " Adverbs modify," 
&c. (922). 

* Conjugation is here omitted for brevity, it being unnecessary, because the verb 
is mentioned as regular (491, note). 

17* 



198 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



thousand 



wonders 



and 



affords ... is a verb, transitive, regular ; in the present indicative, active, third 
person singular; agrees with, and affirms of plant or animal , — Rule 
3 under Rule VIII. " Two or more substantives singular," &c. (785). 

a is the indefinite article, and belongs to thousand, It shows that 

the number is regarded as one aggregate (716) — Rule III., 1. " The 
article a or an" &c. (707 and 726). 
. is a numeral adjective, cardinal, qualifying wonders. — Rule II., 

1. "An adjective or participle," &c. (676). 
. is a noun, neuter, in the objective plural, the object of, and governed 

by, affords. — Rule X. " A transitive verb," &c. (801). 
. is a copulative conjunction; it connects affords and obliges. — 

Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. (944). 
. is the same as affords. See above. 

us is a personal pronoun, first person, masculine or feminine, in the 

objective plural, the object of, and governed by, obliges. — Rule X. 
"A transitive verb." &c. (801). It is at the same time the subject of 
to admire and to adore. — Rule 3 under Rule XV. " The infinitive 
as the subject," &c. (872 and 873). 

is a verb, transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, active, gov- 
erned by obliges. — Rule XV. " The infinitive mood is governed," 
&c. (865). 

is a copulative conjunction ; it connects to admire and to adore. 
— Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," &c. 
, is the same in parsing and construction as to admire. 
is the definite article ; it belongs to hand, and shows it to be 
limited.— Rule III., 2. " The article the," &c. (707). 

Omnipotent is an adjective, not compared, because it does not admit of increase 
(223). It qualifies hand. — Rule II., 1. " An adjective or participle," 
&c. (676). 

is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular, governed by to admire 
and to adore. — Rule X. "A transitive verb," &c. (801). 
is a preposition ; it shows the relation between was created and 
which (538). 

is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the objective singular ; refers to, 
and agrees with, hand as its antecedent — Rule V. " The relative 
agrees," &c. (742) ; and is governed by by. — Rule XT. u A prepo- 
sition governs," &c. (818). It connects its clause with hand, and 
describes it (645 and 610-5). 

it is a pronoun, same as before; is the subject of was created. — Rule 

VI. " The subject of a finite verb," &c. (760). 

was created is a verb, transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, third 
person singular ; affirms of, and agrees with it. — Rule VIII. " A verb 
agrees," &c. (776). 
In the same manner, parse the other sentences analyzed (659) ; and analyze and 

parse the exercises following them, page 139, and any correct sentences from any 

good author. 



to admire . 



and . . . 

to adore . 
the. . . . 



hand 



which 



SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 199 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES 

ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX, ETC. 

In the preceding " Exercises to be corrected," care has been taken to insert such 
examples only as can be corrected by the rule, or the observations under which 
they are placed, or by those which precede them. In the following " Promiscuous 
Exercises," no particular arrangement is observed. Every sentence contains one 
error, many of them two, and some of them three or more. Many of the errors, too, 
are such as are often made, and, on account of our familiarity with them, are not 
so readily noticed. Others are such as nobody would make, and of course will at 
once be detected. These are inserted, not so much to be guarded against, as to 
illustrate and draw attention to the rule which they violate, and to show that others 
which are not so obvious, and which are sometimes committed, involve the same 
error. For example, nobody would say, ''Him writes." Some perhaps might 
say, " Here is the man whom everybody says is the writer of that letter ;" and yet 
the error in both is the same, and violates Rule VI. In all these examples for cor- 
rection, the object aimed at is to put the pupil in possession of the idea intended to 
be expressed — and the exercise for him is to express that idea grammatically, in 
the best manner. There can be no danger of imitating an expression which he is 
forewarned is w r rong; while it will exercise his judgment to detect the error, test 
his knowledge of grammar, and be a profitable exercise in composition to put the 
sentence right. 

All these exercises may be first corrected orally — showing wherein each is wrong, 
and why — correcting the error, and giving a reason for the change made. They 
may then be written out in a corrected state. After that, each sentence may be 
analyzed as directed (658), and then parsed syntactically as directed (983). 

1. — 1. Too great a variety of studies perplex and weaken the judg- 
ment. 2. I called to see you, but; you was not at home. 3. To act 
with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish the manly 
character. 4. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. 5. In the 
human species, the influence of instinct and habit are generally as- 
sisted by the suggestions of reason. 6. The train of our ideas are 
often interrupted. 7. They were both unfortunate, but neither of 
them were to blame. 

2.— 1 . We arrived safely at our journey's end. 2. That is a mat- 
ter of no consequence between you and I. 3. This should not hap- 
pen between such friends as him and me. 4. Them that seek knowl- 
edge will find it. 5. Such are the men whom, we might suppose, 
know better. 6. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 7. The 
love of virtue, and devotion to pleasure, is opposed to each other. 
8. Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. 9. 
No oppressor and no tyrant triumph there. 10. All the world is 
spectators of your conduct. 

3. — 1. Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 2. His associates in 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

wickedness will not fail to mark trie alteration of his conduct. 3. He 
is taller than me, but I am stronger than him. 4. Neither riches or 
beauty furnish solid peace and contentment. 5. The abuse of mer- 
cies ripen us for judgments. 6. John, William, and Henry's hats, 
were stolen. 7. A man's manners frequently influence his fortune. 
8. Much depends on this rule being observed. 9. Such will ever be 
the effect of youth associating with vicious companions. 10. Give 
to every one their due. 11. It has been fully shown that neither of 
them are correct. 12. Every bone, every muscle, every part of man, 
are known to Him which made him. 

4. — 1. He writes tolerable well. 2. Three months' notice are re- 
quired to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the school. 3. That 
rose smells sweetly. 4. He employed another friend of his father to 
assert his claim — [whose claim ?] 5. A soul inspired with the love of 
truth will keep all his powers attentive to the pursuit of it. 6. It is 
the duty of every one to be careful of their reputation. 7. It is re- 
markable his continual endeavors to serve us. 8. Whatever antiqui- 
ties he could procure, he purchased them at any price. 9. I am not 
so well as when you was here. 10. It is three days yesterday, since 
you have promised that money. 11 . This mode of expression has 
been formerly in use. 12. He promised long ago, that he had attended 
to that matter. 13. He was expected to have arrived earlier. 

5. — 1. Twice three are six. 2. Six times three are eighteen. 
3. As two are to four, so are six to twelve. 4. Five are the half of 
ten. 5. The half of ten are five. 6. Nine are not an even number. 

7. One man and one boy is sufficient. 8. Two boys is equal to 
one man. 9. Two boys are less than three — three is better than 
nothing. 10. Two is better than one. 11. Two are an even num- 
ber — three are not. 12. Two are twice one. 13. Two and two 
makes four. 14. Three fourths are more than one half. 15. Five 
men is too many for such a piece of work — three is too few. 16. 
Three shot was fired without effect. 17. The fleet consisted of six 
sails. 18. A drove of forty heads of cattle passed along. 

6. — 1. Molasses are thicker than water. 2. The measles are 
spreading through the country. 3. Wheat is being sold for a dollar 
a bushel, and oats is in demand. 4. The news by the last arrival is 
better than were expected. 5. We hoped to have heard from you 
before this. 6. Do you not think he writes good ? 7. The wind 
blows coldly from the north, and the snow lies deeply on the ground. 

8, James is as tall if not taller than I am. 9. He never has and he 
never will do so well. 10. He whoever said so was mistaken. 



SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 201 

11. There are a heroic innocence as well as a heroic courage. 12. 
He puts down the mighty and exalteth the humble. 13. Piety to- 
ward God, as well as sobriety and virtue, are necessary to happiness. 

7. — 1. Take care who you admit into your friendship. 2. I al- 
ways understood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book. 3. If 
I was him, I would take more care for the future. 4. There is two 
or three of us who have been at Europe last year. 5. We were in 
Havre when the revolution broke out at France. 6. I have been to 
Boston for a few days, and spent the time very pleasant. 7. That 
is the man and the horse which we met before. 8. George was the 
most enterprising young man whom I ever knew. 9. All who were 
present were pleased with the entertainment. 

8. — 1. This excellent person was fully resigned either to have 
lived or to have died. 2. Between he and I there is some disparity of 
years, but none between he and she. 3. To be moderate in our views, 
and proceeding temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best way 
to insure success. 4. Enjoying health, and to live in peace, are great 
blessings. 5. Which dictionary do you prefer, Webster or Walker ? 
6. Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 7. If he 
does but consider the subject, he will no doubt change his opinion. 
8. Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 9. Let him 
be whom he may, I can not wait for him. 10. We have no need for 
his assistance. 11. Among every class of people, self-interest pre- 
vails. 

9 — 1. Many have profited from the misfortunes of others. 2. Ma- 
ny ridiculous customs have been brought in use during the hundred 
last years. 3. Is there no person who you can send on that business ? 

4. Little attention to business is necessary, if you would succeed. 

5. A truth is virtue to which we should pay little regard. 6. With- 
out firmness, nothing that is great can be undertaken ; that is haz- 
ardous, accomplished. 7. The people of the United States enjoys 
a free constitution and laws. 8. That is a property most men have, 
or at least may attain. 9. The pyramids of Egypt stood more 
than three thousand years. 10. It is thought they have been built 
by the Egyptian kings. 11. When the nation complain, the rulers 
should listen to their voice. 12. Whom say the people that I am? 

10. — 1. They that honor me, I will honor. 2. He only got the 
money for a few days. 3. He was mistaken evidently in his calcu- 
lations. 4. No man is fit for free conversation, for the inquiry after 
truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be haughty and proud of 
his knowledge ; if he be positive and dogmatical in his opinions ; if 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

he be one who always affects' to outshine all the company ; if he be 
fretful and peevish ; if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or 
quibbles. 5. A good end does not warrant the using bad means. 
6. A good end does not warrant using of bad means. 7. Humility 
neither seeks the last place, or the last word. 8. Either wealth or 
power may ruin their possessor. 9. Avoid lightness and frivolity ; 
it is allied to folly. 10. Do you know who you are talking to? 11. 
Art thou the man who hast dared to insult me ? 12. Oh that the 
winter was gone ! 

11. — 1. We are often disappointed of things which, before posses- 
sion, promised much enjoyment. 2. We can fully confide on none 
but the truly good. 3. You may rely in that. 4. The Saxons re- 
duced the greater part of Britain to their power. 5. He was ac- 
cused with acting unfairly, at least in a manner illy adapted for con- 
ciliating regard. 6. There is more business done in New York than 
in any city of the United States. 7. The same laws and the same 
constitution which belongs to one citizen of the United States be- 
longs to all. 8. If there was better management, there would be 
greater security. 9. The ship Panama is early expected from Can- 
ton in the spring. 10. Every year, every day, and every hour, bring 
their changes. 11. Whom say ye that I am ? 

12 — 1. Many a youth have ruined their prospects for life by one 
imprudent step. 2. No power was ever yet intrusted to man with- 
out a liability to abuse. 3. A conceited fool is more abominable than 
all fools. 4. My gravity never did no one any harm. 5. A constant 
display of the graces are fatiguing to a sober mind. 6. These coins 
of compliments and flattery circulate everywhere in society : the true 
is of gold, the base is of brass. 7. Expectation and reality makes 
up the sum total of life. 8. Music, the love of it, and the practice of 
it, seems to pervade all creation. 9. All soils are not adapted for 
cultivation. 10. The vain abhors the vain. 11. The author dreads 
the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the judge, 
the horse dreads the whip, and the lamb dreads the wolf — all after 
their kind. 12. The intellectual and moral censor both have the 
same ends in view. 

13. — 1. I was engaged formerly in that business, but I never shall 
be again concerned in it. 2. We do those things frequently which 
we repent of afterward. 3. Not to exasperate him, I only spoke a 
few words. 4. Shall you attain success without that preparation, 
and escape dangers without that precaution which is required of oth- 
ers ? 5. That picture of your mother's is a very exact resemblance 



SYNTAX IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 



203 



of her. 6. The winter has not been as severe as we expected it to 
have been. 7. In reference to that transaction, he deserved punish- 
ment as much or more than his companions. 8. In such circumstan- 
ces, no man, no woman, no child, are safe. 9. Every one of those 
pleasures that are pursued to excess, convert themselves into poison. 
10. Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall 
deliver us from it in due time. 11. The sea appeared to be more 
than usually agitated. 12. By these attainments are the master hon- 
ored and the scholar encouraged. 13. The temple consisted of one 
great and several smaller edifices. 14. Whether he will be learned 
or no, depends on his application. 



A LIST OP IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY. 



Improper. 
The alone God. The alone motive. 
I an't ; you an' I ; he an J t, &c. 
Any manner of means. 
He was walking back and forth. 
His argument was based on this fact. 
The money was ordered paid. 
I calculate to leave town soon. 
A chunk of bread. 
A clever house. 
He conducts well. 
He is considerable of a scholar. 
His farm was convenient to mine. 
He is a decent scholar, writer. 
Her situation was distressing to a degree. 
A total destitution of capacity. 
The United States, or either of them, 
Equally as well ; as good, &c. 

Mr. A B — — , Esq, 

I expect he must have died long ago. 

These things are in a bad fix. 

Will you fix these things for me ? 

What do folks think of it ? 

Talents of the highest grade. 

Do you love play ? I guess I do. 

We may hope the assistance of God. 

A horse colt-, a mare colt. 

It would illy accord. 

When did you come in town ? 

A lengthy sermon, &c. 

Why don't you strike like I do ? 



Proper. 
The one God. The only motive. 
I am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 
Any means. 

— — backward and forward. 
His argument was founded on this fact. 
The money was ordered to be paid. 
I intend to leave town soon. 
A piece of bread. 
A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respectably. 
He is a pretty good scholar. 
His farm was contiguous to mine, close. 
He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing. 

A total want of capacity. 

The United States, or any of them. 

Equally well, or just as well, &c. 

A — B , Esq. 

I think he must have died, &c. 

— in a bad state or condition. 

Will you put these things in order for me ? 
What do people think of it ? 
Talents of the highest order. 

there is no doubt of that. 

We may hope for the assistance of God. 

A colt ; a filly. 

It would ill accord. 

When did you come into town? 

A long sermon, &c. 

~ - — — as [ do, or like as I do ? 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- 



PUNCTUATION. 

984. Punctuation treats of the points and marks now 
used in writing. 

985. The use of these points is to mark the divisions of a sentence, 
in order to show the meaning more clearly, and to serve as a guide 
in the pauses and inflections required in reading. 

986. The principal marks used for this purpose are the following : 
the comma ( , ), the semicolon ( ; ), the colon ( : ), the period ( . ), the 
note of interrogation ( ? ), the note of exclamation ( ! ), the dash ( — ), 
the parentheses ( ), the brackets [ ]. 

987. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these 
marks, no very definite rule can be given — the same point in certain 
kinds of composition, and in certain positions, requiring sometimes a 
longer and sometimes a shorter pause. 

988. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause ; the 
semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause 
double that of the semicolon ; and the period, a pause still longer 
than that of the colon. 

* COMMA. 

989. The comma is generally used in those parts of a sentence in 
which a short pause is required, and to mark a connexion next in 
closeness to that which is unbroken. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

990. Rule 1. — In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used ; as, " Hope 
is necessary in every condition of life." 

991. Rule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by the addi- 
tion of several adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the grammatical subject, a 
comma is usually inserted before the verb ; as, " A steady and undivided attention 
to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind." 

992. Rule 3. — In compound sentences, the clauses or members are usually sepa- 
rated by commas ; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and 
wise men use them." But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the 
comma is not used , as, " Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 

993. Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunction ex- 
pressed, do not admit a comma between them; as, " The earth and the moon are 
planets." — " He is a wise and prudent man." — " He catches and arrests the hours." 
" He acts prudently and vigorously." But when the conjunction is not expressed, 
a comma is inserted ; as, " He is a plain, honest man ," except where the two 
adjectives qualify the noun, not separately, but together, as a compound adjective ; 
as, u A bright-red color." 



PUNCTUATION. 205 

994. Rule 5. — More than two words of the same class connected by conjunc- 
tions expressed or understood, have a comma after each ; as, " Poetry, music, and 
painting-, are fine arts." But when the words connected are adjectives, the last 
should not be separated from its noun by a comma after it ; as, " David was a. wise, 
brave, and prudent king." 

995. Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as, "Anar- 
chy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences 
of civil war." 

996. Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, when the latter 
noun has several words or adjuncts connected with it ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the 
Gentiles/' But a single noun in apposition with another is not separated by a 
comma : as, " Paul the apostle." 

997. Rule 8. — The nominative independent, and the nominative absolute (768), 
with the words dependent on them, are separated by commas from the rest of the 
sentence ; as, " My son, hear the instruction of thy father." — '• I am, sir, your obe- 
dient servant." — " The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to improve- 
ment." — " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

998. Rule 9. — Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated by a comma; 
thus, " As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." 
— " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull." But when the compar- 
ison is short, and the connexion intimate, the comma is not used ; as " Wisdom is 
better than rubies." 

999. Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, &c, when 
considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence, should be 
separated from the context by a comma ; as, " Nay, but we w T ill serve the Lord." 
So also, as and thus, introducing an example or quotation ; as, &c. 

1000. Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of its antecedent, is 
usually separated from the rest of a sentence ; as, " He who disregards the good 
opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, u He must be utterly aban- 
doned, who disregards," &c. But w^hen the relative, with its clause, is restrictive 
(267-2), and the connexion so close, that it can not be separated, the comma is not 
used ; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice u-hich virtue must make." 

1001. Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by another clause, 
has a comma before it ; as, "Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 

1002. Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted ; as, 
" Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready man ; and wilting, an exact 
man." 

1003. Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by a comma; as, " Holy, holy, 
holy, is the Lord God Almighty." — " No, no, no, it can not be." 

1004. Rule 15. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words out of 
their regular connexion, often require a comma ; as, " To God, all things are possi- 
ble." Not inverted, it would be, " All things are possible to God." — " His delight 
was, to assist the distressed.". In the natural order, " To assist the distressed was 
his delight." 

1005. Rule 16. — A short expression, in the manner of a quotation, is separated 
by commas ; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, 
reply, and the like, with their dependent words introducing a quotation or remark, 
are usually separated by commas ; as, " The book of nature, said he, is open before 
thee." — " I say unto all, watch." 

is 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,. 

1006. Rule 17. —Adjectives, participles^ adverbs, infinitives, &c, when separa- 
ted from the word on which they depend, or, when accompanied hy several ad- 
juncts, commonly require commas to be inserted ; as, " His talents, formed for great 
enterprises, could not fail of tendering him conspicuous." — " To conclude, I can 
only say this." — " We must not, however ', neglect our duty.*' 

SEMICOLON* 

1007. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, 
which are less closely connected than those which are separated by 
a comma, and more closely than those which are separated by the 
colon. 

GENERAL RULE* 

1008. The parts of a sentence separated by the semicolon, should 
contain in themselves a complete and independent proposition, but 
still having a connexion with the other parts. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1009. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a complete prop- 
osition, but is followed by a clause added as an inference or reason, or to give some 
explanation, the pail thus added must be separated by a semicolon; as, " Perform 
your duty faithfully; for this will procure you the blessing of Heaven." — •' The ora- 
tor makes the truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites them to ac- 
tion ; he shows them their impending danger." — " Be at peace with many ; never- 
theless, have but few counsellors." 

1010. Rule 2. — When several short sentences, complete in themselves, but hav- 
ing a slight connexion in idea, follow in succession, they should be separated by a 
semicolon ; as, " The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents 
a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind ; pastoral po- 
etry describes rural life ; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart." 

1011. Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several members, and these mem- 
bers are complex, and subdivided by commas, the larger divisions of the sentence 
are sometimes separated by a semicolon ; as, " As the desire of approbation, when 
it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every thing 
that is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by 
vanity and folly." 

1012. Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as particulars, in appo- 
sition under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a semicolon, 
and the particulars from each other by commas ; as, " Adjective pronouns are divi- 
ded into four classes; possessive, demonstrative, distributive, and indefinite." But 
if the word namely be introduced, the separation is made by a comma only. 

COLON. 

1013. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, 
but not so independent as to require a period. 



PUNCTUATION. 207 

SPECIAL RULES. 
1014. Rule 1. — A colon is used when a sentence is complete in itself, in both 



and construction, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration* 
depending upon it in sense, though not in Syntax ; as, " A brute arrives at a point 
of perfection that he can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments of 
which he is capable." — •' Study to acquire a habit of thinking : nothing is more 
important." 

1015. Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in succession, each con- 
taining a complete sense in itself, but all having a common dependence on some 
subsequent clause ; these sentences are separated from the subsequent clause by a 
colon, and from each other by a semicolon ; as, " That Nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; that she has inexhaustible resources in reserve ; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make dis- 
coveries: these are among the assertions of philosophers." 

1016. Rule 3. — Either a colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a 
quotation, or a speech, is introduced ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim ; 
1 Know thyself " — " The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity 
in these words: ' God is love.' " 

1017. Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the concluding 
member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the colon or semicolon. 
When the conjunction is not expressed before the concluding member, which 
would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used ; but when the con- 
junction is expressed, the semicolon ; as, " Apply j^ourself to learning : it will 
redound to your honor." — " Apply yourself to learning; for it will redound to your 
honor." 

PERIOD. 

1018. Sentences which are complete in sense, and not connected 
in either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a 
period; thus, "Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward 
all men." 

1019. But when short sentences are connected in meaning, but not in construc- 
tion, they are separated by a semicolon (10] 0). 

1020. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically connected by con- 
junctions, often insert a period (563) ; thus, " He who lifts up himself to the notice 
and observation of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For 
he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every 
part." 

1021. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, sections, &c. ; also, 
after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3, J. Smith, &c. 

INTERROGATION. 

1022. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the mark of interroga- 
tion- as equal to a period. 

1023. The interrogation is always put at the end of a direct question ; as, " What 
is truth?" Bat the in&'trect question does not require the interrogation; as, 
" Pilate inquired what is truth." 

Note. — Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they follow a uniform 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

system. It is, therefore, for the most part, best, in preparing matter for the press, to 
leave this matter to them, except where the meaning intended may not be clearly 
perceived without the punctuation. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

1024. The Dash ( — ) is used where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; also, to 
denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn in the sentiment — or that the first 
clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition. 

1025. The Exclamation (!) is used after expressions of sudden emotion of any 
kind ; also, in invocations or addresses ; as, " Eternity ! thou pleasing, dreadful 
thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word ; as, " Oh ! 
that he would come." But when O is used, the point is placed after some inter- 
vening words ; as, " O my friends !" 

1026. Parentheses ( ) include a clause inserted in the body of a sentence, in 
order to convey some useful or necessary information or remark, but which may be 
omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, 
brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion 
over a man as long as he liveth." In reading, the parenthetic part is distinguished 
by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is short, and accords with 
the general tenor of the sentence, commas are now generally used instead of 
parentheses, as — 

" Thou sluggish power, if power thou be, 
All destitute of energy." 

The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as possible. 

1027. Brackets [ ] are properly used to enclose a word or phrase interpolated for 
the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a deficiency in a sentence quo- 
ted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to the original composition ; 
thus, It is said, u The wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not 
exempt from human frailty." 

1028. The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used when a letter or letters are omitted ; as, 
e'er for ever, tho' for though ; or to mark the possessive case. 

1029. Quotation marks ( " " ) are put at the beginning and end of a passage 
quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a passage regarded as a 
quotation. 

1030. The Hyphen { - ) is used to connect compound words which are not per- 
manent compounds, as, lap-dog ; also at the end of a line, to show that the rest of 
the word not completed is at the beginning of the next line. 

1031. Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 

1032. Paragraph ( ^[ ) was formerly used to denote the beginning of a new 
paragraph. 

1033. The Brace ( ^^ ) is used to connect -words which have one common 
term, or three lines in j)oetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 

1034. Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K — g for 

King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose ; as, K**g. 

1035. The Caret ( \ ) is used to show that some word is either omitted or 
interlined. 

1036. The Index ( fl^y ) is used to point out anything remarkable. 

1037. The vowel-marks are : The Diceresis ( •• ), on the last of two concurrent 



FIGURES. 209 

vowels, showing that they are not to be pronounced as a diphthong ; the Acute ac- 
cent ( ' ) ; the Grave ( > ) ; the Long sound ( - ) ; the Short sound ( ° ). 

] 038. The marks of reference are : The Asterisk ( * ) ; the Obelisk or Dagger 
( t ) ; the Double Dagger (%); the Parallels ( || ). Sometimes, also, the § and If. 
Also, small letters or figures which refer to notes at the foot of the page. 



FIGURES. 

1039. A Figure, in grammar, is some deviation from 
the ordinary form, or construction, or application of words, 
in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety, 
or elegance of expression. 

1040. There are three kinds of Figures; viz., of Etymology, of 
Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and the second refer to the form 
of words, or to their construction, the last to their application. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

1041. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the usual or 
simple form of words, merely. 

1042. Of these the most important are eight, viz. : A-phcer-e-sis, 
Pros-the-sis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-go-ge, Di-cer-e-sis, Syn- 
cer-e-sis, and Tmesis. 

1. Apharesis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst, 
' gan, 'bove, 'neafh, for, against, began, above, beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word ; as, adown, agoing, &c, 
for down, going, &c. 

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short one, from the mid- 
dle of a word ; as, med'cine, sp'rit, e'en, for medicine, spirit, even. 

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; as, tho\ 
for though, th' for the. 

5. Par ago ge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word ; as, deary, for 



6. Diaeresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syllables, usu- 
ally marked thus ( •• ) on the second vowel ; as, cooperate, aerial. 

7. Syn&resis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either orthography or 
pronunciation ; as. dost, seest, for doest, seest, or, loved, learned, pronounced in one 
syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed. 

8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an intervening term? 
as, " What time soever" — " On which side soever" — " To us ward." 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
1043. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construction 
of words in a sentence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force. 

18* 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

1044. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Sul- 
lepsis, Enallage, and Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to the full construction of a sen- 
tence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended (977). Such words are said 
to be understood ; as, " The men, women, and children," for " The men. the women, 
and the children." 

2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to the full construc- 
tion of a sentence, to give greater force or emphasis to the expression ; as, " The 
boy, oh ! where was he ?" 

3. Sullepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which we conceive the 
sense of words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to 
the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, " He shines" — of a ship, " She 
sails" (130). 

4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of one modification 
of a word for another; as an adjective for an adverb, thus : " They fall successive, 
and successive rise," for successively ; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote 
an individual, &c. (245). 

5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a sentence, to give 
variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition ; as, " Now come we to the last." — 
u A man he was to all the country dear." — " He -wanders earth around. 11 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

1045. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary appli- 
cation of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to 
the composition. These figures are sometimes called tropes, 

1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz. : — 

Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, 

Simile, Irony, Exclamation, 

Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, 

Allegory, Synedoche, Paralepsis, 

Vision, Antithesis, Apostrophe. 

1. Personification, or prosopopoeia, is that figure of speech by which we attrib- 
ute life and action to inanimate objects; as, " The sea saw it and fled." 

2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another ; as, " He 
shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." 

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of comparison ; as. 
" He shall be a tree planted by" &c. 

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in sense as 
to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the people of Israel are represented un- 
der the image of a vine : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt," &c. Ps. lxxx. 
8-17. Of this style are iEsop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress," &c. 

5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents past events, 
or the objects of his imagination, as actually present to his senses ; as, " Caesar 
leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy/'—" The combat thickens : on, 
ye brave!" 



POETIC LICENSES. 211 

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, better or 
worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of Saul and Jonathan, " They were 
swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions." 

7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we say ; as, 
when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, " Cry aloud, j m he is a god" &c. 

8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, or the effect 
for the cause ; as, when we say, '* He reads Milton" we mean Milton's works. 
" Gray hairs should be respected" — that is, old age. 

9. Synedoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part, a 
definite number for an indefinite, &c. ; as, the waves for the sea, the head for the 
person, and ten thousand for any great number. This figure is nearly allied to 
metonymy. 

10. Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary objects are 
contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage. Thus, Solomon con- 
trasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of the righteous, when he says, 
" The icickedf.ee when no man pursueth. but the righteous are bold as a, lion." 

11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the circumstances of an 
object or action which we wish to place in a strong light : as, " Who shall separate 
us from the love of Christ 1 Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or fam- 
ine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay," &c. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion of the 
mind ; as, " Oh ! the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of 
God." 

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our mind, and 
enliven our discourse, by proposing questions ; thus, ''Hath the Lord said it ? and 
shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ?" 

14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends to con- 
ceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, " Horatius was once a 
very promising young gentleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to 
gaming, not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted 
his estate, and ruined his constitution." 

15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address some other person or 
thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory." — " O Death, tchere is thy sting ?" 

1047. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construction of words, noted 
tinder the figures of Etymology and Syntax, there are still others, which can not 
be classed under proper heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic com- 
position, are commonly called — 

POETIC LICENSES. 

1048. These are such as the following : — 

1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are often used, which 
would be inadmissible in prose ; as— 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 

And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 
u By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen." 
" Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 
When and where likes me best, I can command ?" 
" Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey," 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" The whiles, the vaulted shrine around, 

Seraphic wires were heard to sound." 
"On the first friendly bank he throws him down." 
" I '11 seek the solitude he sought, 

And stretch me where he lay." 

" Not Hector's self should want an equal foe." 

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than 
in prose ; as — 

" Suffice, to night, these orders to obey." 
" Time is our tedious song should here have ending." 
" For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ?" 
" 'T is Fancy, in her fiery car, 

Transports me to the thickest war." 
" Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys." 
" Bliss is the same in subject as in king, 

In who obtain defence, or who defend." 

3. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly connected with nouns 
which they do not strictly qualify ; as — 

" The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." 
" The tenants of the warbling shade." 
"And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds" 

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A noun 
and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb ; as — 

"It ceased, the melancholy sound." 

" My banks they are furnished -with bees." 

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, the sign 
of the infinitive ; as — 

" To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes." 

6. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor in- 
stead of either and neither ; as — 

" And first 

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." 
"Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and adjectives used 
like abstract nouns ; as — 

" The lightnings flash a larger curve." 

" Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived 

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." 
11 Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

By chance or search, was offered to his view, 

He scanned with curious eye." 



POETIC LICENSES. 213 

8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in poetry, 
though inadmissible in prose ; as— 

'• He knew to sing, and buitd the lofty rhyme." 
" Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." 
" There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame." 
" Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed." 

" Never since created man *■ 

Met such embodied force." 
1049. Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to prose writers ; 
and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, they enhance the pleasure 
of reading poetic composition, by increasing the boundary of separation set up, 
especially in our language, between it and common prose. Were such licenses 
not permitted in poetry, the difficulty attendant upon this species of composition 
would probably be so great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous 
task of writing verse. 

EXERCISES. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Etymology in the following phrasef 
and sentences : — 

His courage 'gan fail. Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast. 
'Twas mine, 'tis his. Vain tamp'ring has but fostered his disease. 
Enchained he lay, a monster. What way soe'er he turned, it met 
him. Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. Withouten trump 
was proclamation made. 

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Syntax in the following sentences:— 
The law I gave to nature him forbids. So little mercy shows who 
needs so much. My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the 
drops of the night. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. 
He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. Conscience pleads her 
cause within the breast. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so 
much. Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself are much condemned. 
Let us instant go. Them he himself to glory will advance. But 
apt the mind or fancy is to rove. Our land shall yield her increase. 
Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following sentences : 
As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. Without discipline, the 
favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild. Thy name is as oint- 
ment poured forth. The Lord God is a sun and shield. Tho' deep, 
yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet profound. Their furrow oft the stubborn 
glebe has broke. His arm is conquest, and his frown is hate. 'T was 
then his threshold first received a guest. I saw their chief, tall as a 
rock of ice, his spear the blasted fir. At which the universal host 
sent up a shout that tore hell's concave. 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

1050. Prosody treats of Elocution and Versification. 

ELOCUTION. 

1051. Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the prop- 
er management of the voice in reading or speaking. 

1052. In order to read and speak with grace and effect, attention 
must be paid to the proper pitch of the voice, the accent and quantity 
of the syllables, and to emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

1053. — 1. In the pitch and management of the voice, it should be neither too 
high nor too low ; it should be distinct and clear ; the utterance neither too quick 
nor too slow, and neither too varied nor too monotonous. 

1054. — 2. Accent is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a certain syllable 
in a word, as the syllable vir- in virtue, vi/tuous. 

1055. — 3. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time which is required to 
pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to two short ones. . Thus, pine, 
tube, note, require to be sounded as long again as pin, tub, not. In English versi- 
fication, an accented syllable is long, an unaccented one is short. 

1056. — 4. Emph asis means that greater stress of the voice which we lay on some 
particular word or words, in order to mark their superior importance in the sen- 
tence, and thereby the better to convey the idea intended by the writer or speaker. 

1057. — 5. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order to enable the 
reader or speaker to take breath ; and to give the hearer a distinct perception of the 
meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the whole discourse (985). For poetic 
pauses, see (1116). 

1058. — 6 Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes, or varia- 
tions of sound, which we employ in speaking, to express the different sentiments, 
emotions, or feelings, intended. 

* # * A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would be as im- 
practicable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that 
purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in works on elocution — a sub- 
ject which is, or should be, taken up as a separate branch of study. 



VERSIFICATION. 

1059. Versification is the art of arranging words into 
poetical lines, or verses. s 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 215 

1060. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain number of 
accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed rules. 

1061. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or verses taken 
together, whether rhyming with each other or not. A Triplet con- 
sists of three lines rhyming together. 

1062. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, vary- 
ing in number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regu- 
lar division of a poem or song. This is often incorrectly called a 
ve r se. 

1063. Rhyme is the similarity of sound inthe last syllables of two 
or more successive lines or verses. Poetry, the verses of which 
have this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme. 

1064. Blank Verse is the name given to that species of poetry 
which is without rhyme. 

FEET. 

1065. Feet are the smaller portions into which a line is divided — 
each of which consists of two or more syllables, combined according 
to accent. 

1066. In English versification, an accented syllable is accounted long ; an unac- 
cented syllable, short. In the following examples, a straight line ( - ) over a sylla- 
ble shows that it is accented, and a curved line, or breve ( -> ), that it is unaccented. 

1067. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as without accent, often 
receive it when placed in a poetical line, and are long or short, according as they 
are with or without the accent. Thus — 



" To" rouse him with the spur and rein, 
With more than rapture's ray." 



In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity, long or short, inde- 
pendent of accent, for -which there are certain definite rules. In this, they differ 
widely from the English. 

1068. Metre, or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain number 
of poetical feet in a verse or line. 

1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called Acatalectic. 

2. When it is deficient, it is called Caialectic. 

3. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter. 

1069. Aline consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of two, 
dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, pentame- 
ter', of six, hexameter; of seven, heptameter. 

1070. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

1071. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds; four of two 
syllables, and four of three, as follows : — 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 

1. An Iambus ~ -; as, defend. 

2. A Trochee - — ; as, noble. 

3. A Spondee - - ; as, vain man. 

4. A Pyrrhic - -; as, on a (hill). 

II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 

1. An Anapaest - ~-; as, intercede. 

2. A Dactyl - ~ - ; as, durable. 

3. An Amphibrach — - ~ ; as, abundant. 

4. A Tribrach ~ ~ ~; as, (tol)erable. 

1072. Of all these, the principal are the Iambus, Trochee, Ana- 
past, and Dactyl. The other four feet are used chiefly in connexion 
with these, in order to give variety to the measure. 

1073. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, 
nobis, music. 

1074. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as. 
adore, defend. 

1075. A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, "vain man." 

1076. A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, " on & 
(Mil)." 

1077. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last unaccented ; 
as, virtuous. 

1078. An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unaccented, and the mid- 
dle one accented ; as, contentment. 

1079. An Anapcest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented; 
as, intercede. 

1080. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, num \ Zrablg. 

1081. A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which 
predominates in it ; thus, Iambic, Trochaic, &c. 

I. IAMBIC VERSE. 

1082. An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently has 
the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, &c, syllable. It has differ- 
ent metres, as follows : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — r 

? Tis sweet 
Ttt meet. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — 

With thee | we rise, 
With thee | we reign. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter; as — 

In pla I ces far | br near, 
Or fa | raous, or | obscure. 



PROSODY— -VERSIFICATION. 217 

4. Four feet, or Tetrameter ; as— - 

How sleep | thg brave, | who' sink | to rest, 
By all | their conn | try's wish | es blest. 

5. Five feet, or Pentameter ; as — 

Fbrme | your trib | uta | ry stores | combine; 
Crea | tion's heir, | tlie world, | the world | is mine. 

6. Six feet, or Hexameter ; as — 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone | his light | is passed ; 
He sits J and mourns, [ in si | lent grief, | the ling' | ring day. 

7. Seven feet, or Heptameter ; as — 

When all j thy mer | cies, O | my G5d, | my lis | ing soul | surveys, 
Transport | ed with | the view | I'm lost, | in won | der,love | and praise. 

1083. Each of these kinds of iambic verse may have an additional 
short syllable, and so be called iambic hy per meter ; thus — 

1. Disdain | ing. 

2. Upon | a moan | tain. 

9. When on | her Mak | er's bo | sbm. 

4.3ut hail, | thou god j dess, sage | and ho | ly. 

5. What slen | der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o j dor. 

6. Whose front ] can brave | the storm, | but will | not rear | the flow | Sr. 

7. To scat | tero'er | his path | of fame, | bright hues | of gem- | like show | 6rs. 

1084. It often happens that a trochee, or sometimes a spondee, 
is admitted in place of the first foot, which gives a pleasing variety 
to the verse ; as — 

Planets j and suns | run law | less through | the sky. 
Fierce, hard | y, proud | in con | scious free | dbm bold. 
1085. — Iambic Manometer, Dimeter, and Trimeter* — Of these 
metres, there is no regular form, but they are sometimes introduced 
into stanzas. 

1086. Iambic Tetrameter. — This verse may extend through a con- 
siderable number of verses. 

1087. Iambic Pentameter^ — Iambic verse of five feet is called 
Heroic verse. Such is Milton's " Paradise Lost," &c. By the ad- 
mission of trochees, anapaests, &c, in certain places, it is capable 
of many varieties. 

1088. Iambic Hexameter. — A verse of six feet is called Alexan- 
drine. 

1089. The Elegiac stanza consists of four pentameter lines 
rhyming alternately ; as — 

The cur j few tolls | thg knell | bf part | ing day, 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1090. The Spenserian stanza (which takes its name from the poet 
Spenser) consists of eight pentameter or heroic verses, followed by 
one hexameter, or Alexandrine verse. This is the stanza in which 
the " Fairie Queene" is written. 

1091. Iambic Heptameter. — Iambic verses of seven feet, formerly 
written in one line, are now commonly divided into two, one of four, 
and one of three feet ; as — 

When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, 

My ris j ing soul | surveys, 
Transport j ed with | the view, | I'm lost 
In won | der, love, | and praise. 

1092. This is called common metre. Stanzas consisting of four lines, each con- 
taining- three feet, are called short metre ; and those consisting of four lines, each 
containing four feet, are called long metre. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1093. Trochaic verse consists of Trochees, and consequently has 
the accent on the first, third, fifth, &c, syllables. It has different 
metres, as follows : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — ■ 

Staying, 
Playing. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter; as — 

Rich the | treasure, 
Sweet the | pleasure. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter; as — 

Go where | glory | waits thee; 
But whSn | fame e | lates thee. 

4. Four feeU or Tetrameter ; as— 

Maids are | sitting | by the" | fountain, 
Bright the | moon o'er | yonder | mountain. 

5. Five feet, or Pentameter (very uncommon); as — 

In th6 | dark, and | green, and | gloomy | valley, 
Satyrs, | by the | brooklet, | love to | dally. 

6. Six feet, or Hexameter ; as — 

On a | mountain, | stretched be | neath a | hoary | wlllbw, 
Lay a | shepherd j swain, and | viewed thS | rolling | billbw. 

1094. Each of these may take an additional long syllable, and so 
become hypercatalectic, or hypermeter ; thus— 

1. Tumult | cease, 
Sink tb | peace. 

2. In the | days of | old, 
Fables | plainly | told. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 219 

3. Restless | mortals | toil for | nought, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

4. Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair. 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit! | bird thou | never | wert, 
That from | heaven, or | near it, | pourest | thy full | heart. 

6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Water | loo; 
Cocks had sung their earliest greeting ; faint and low they crew. 

1095. In the last two forms, each line is usually divided into two ; 

thus — 

5. Hail to | thee, blithe | spirit ! 

Bird thou | never | wert. 

6. Night and j morning | were at ] meeting, 

Over | Water | loo. 

1096. Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable at the end, 
is the same as Iambic verse, wanting a short syllable at the beginning. 

ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

1097. Anapaestic verse, consists chiefly of anapaests, and, when 
pure, has the accent on every third syllable. It has different metres, 
as follows : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — 

But tob far, 
Each proud star. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as— 

But his cour I age 'gan fail, 
For no arts | could avail. 

3. Three feel, or Trimeter; as — 

ye woods ! | spread your branch | es apace, 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, 
I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 

4. Four feet, or Tetrameter ; as — 

May I gov [ ern my pass | ions with ab | sbliite sway, 
And grow wis | er and bet | ter as life | wears away. 

1098. Of these, the first is ambiguous, for by placing an accent on 
the first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer hypermeter. 

1099. The second sometimes admits an additional short syllable at 
the end ; as — 

On the road | by the val | ley, 

As he wand | ered lament | ing ; 
To the green | of the for | est, 

He returned | him repent | Tng. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1100. The third is a very pleasing measure, and is much used 
in both solemn and cheerful subjects, but it seldom takes an addi- 
tional syllable. 

1101. The fourth, or tetrameter, admits an additional syllable, 
which often has a pleasing effect ; as — 

On the warm | cheek of youth | smiles and ros | es are blend | ing. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

1102. Dactylic verse consists chiefly of dactyls, and has the fol- 
lowing varieties : — 

1. One foot, or Monometer ; as — - 

Fearfully, 
Tearfully. 

2. Two feet, or Dimeter ; as — ■ 

Free from sa | tiety, 
Care and anx | iety, 
Charms in va | riety 
Fall to his | share. 

3. Three feet, or Trimeter; as — 

Wearing a, | way in his | youthfulness, 
Loveliness, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 

1103. Each of- these sometimes takes an additional long syllable, 
and so becomes hypermeter ; as — ■ 

1. Over a [ mead, 
Pricking his | steed. 

2. Covered with | snow was thS | vale, 
Sad was the | shriek of the | gale, 
When to the | night, woful | wail 
Rose to the | skies — to the | skies! 

3. Time it has j passed, and the | lady is | pale, 
Pale as the | lily that | lolls on the | gale. 

1104. By combining these kinds, examples of tetrameter, pentame- 
ter, and even hexameter, are obtained ; but they are seldom used. 

1106. A dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl; it more com- 
monly adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the following 

lines : — 

Brightest and j best tff the | sons bf the | morning, 
Dawn on our | darkness and | lend us thine | aid. 

1107. The following is an example of dactyls and spondees alter- 
nately : — 

Green in the | wildwood | proudly the | tall tree | looks tin the" | brown plain. 
The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter : — 
Ov5r thg | valley, with | speed like the | wind, all thS | steeds we're a | galloping. 



PROSODY VERSIFICATION. 221 

1108. Considering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar adaptedness 
to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that it has not been more cultivated. 

MIXED VERSES. 

1109. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic 
verse, for example, sometimes admits other feet into the line, par- 
ticularly at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The follow- 
ing are examples of iambic lines with different feet introduced : — 

Trochee. . . Prophet j of plagues, | forev ] er bod | ing ill ! 
Dactyl. . . . Murmuring, | and with him fled the shades of night. 
Anapaest. . Before | all tern | pies the up | right heart | and pure. 
Pyrrhic. . . Brought death j into [ the world j and all | our wo. 
Tribrach . And thun J ders down { impet j iious to J the plain. 

1110. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted; and the 
verse becomes trochaic with an additional long syllable. 

1111. In trochaic verse, the initial long syllable is sometimes omitted; and the 
line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable. 

1112. If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of an anapaestic line, 
it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So — 

1113. If the initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it becomes ana- 
paestic with two short syllables added. 

1114. A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling iambuses 
and anajxzstSy as in the following lines : — 

" I come, | I come ! | yS have called | me long ; 
I come | o'er the moun | tains with light | and song ! 
YS may trace | my steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, 
By thS winds | which tell | bf the vi | blet's birth, 
BJ the prim j rose stars | bf the shad | bwy grass, 
Bf the green | leaves op | ening | as 1 pass." 

1115. In odes and lyric pieces, verses of different kinds and different metres or 
measures are often intenningled. after the manner of the ancient choral odes, with 
a pleasing effect. "Alexander's Feast/' Collins's "Ode to the Passions," &c, 
are examples. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

1116. Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in read- 
ing, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated by the 
punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition, required 
by, and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line. 

1117. These are chiefly the Final pause and the Ceesural pause. 

1118. The final pause is required at the end of every line of poetry, even where 
there is no sentential pause. When that is the case, it consists in a brief suspen- 
sion of the voice, without any change in its tone or pitch. When a sentential pause 
occurs at the end of the line, as it does very often, it takes the place of, and super* 
sedes the final pause. 

19* 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1119. The ccesural pause is a suspension of the voice somewhere in the line 
itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be manifest when 
poetry is well read. It does not occur in very short lines. In lines of some length, 
it generally occurs near the middle ; sometimes, however, nearer the beginning, and 
sometimes nearer the end ; often in the middle of a foot, but never in the middle of a 
word. Sometimes, besides this, a sort of demiccesural pause is required, to give 
full effect to the expression. The following lines furnish examples of the ccesural 
pause in different parts of the line, and also of the demiccesural pause. The former 
is marked ("), the latter (') :— 

" The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet, 
And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet." 

" The crested basilisk" and speckled snake." 

" And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day." 

"But not to me returns 

Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn.'' 

" No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all 
The multitude of angels" with a shout, 
Loud" as from numbers without numbers," sweet 
As from blest voices" uttering joy." 

" Warms' in the sun," refreshes 7 in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; 
Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, 
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent." 

EXERCISES. 

As exercises in scanning, lines or stanzas from any poetical work 
may be selected. 



COMPOSITION. 

1120. Composition is the art of expressing our sentiments in spo- 
ken or written language. It is of two kinds, Prose and Poetry. 

1121. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are expressed in the 
natural order, in common and ordinary language. 

1122. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments are 
expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by words and fig- 
ures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 

1123. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect. 

1124. Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his own sen- 
timents. 

1125. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in his own 
language, what another speaker or writer said. 

1126. In the first, when the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person I 
or we. When he refers to the person or persons addressed, he uses the second per- 
son thou, you, &c. 



COMPOSITION. 223 

1127. In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker is reported as 
referring to himself, or to those whom he addresses, the third person is used in either 
case ; as, he, she, they, &c. An example will best illustrate the distinction. Thus : 

1128. DIRECT DISCOURSE. 

Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said : " Ye men of Athens, I per- 
ceive that in all thing's ye are too superstitious ; for as I passed by and beheld your 
devotions, I found an altar with this inscription: 'To the Unknown God.' 
Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

1129. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus :-— 

Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens he perceived that in 
all things they were too superstitious; for as he passed by and beheld their devo- 
tions, lie found an altar with this inscription : " To the Unknown God." Whom, 
therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, him declared he unto them. 

1130. When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or persons ad- 
dressed, are different in gender or number, there is no danger of ambiguity. But 
when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same 
pronoun being used in the progress of discourse, to designate different persons. 
Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is often necessary to insert the name or designation 
of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also : — 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him. [direct] ■ I have sinned against 
Heaven and in thy sight.' " 

" Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] that he (the son) had 
sinned against Heaven and in his (his father's) sight." 

It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed in brackets, for 
explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word he, the father or 
the son was intended ; so also with respect to the word his. Hence, when by the 
indirect discourse, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have recourse 
to the direct form, and quote the writers or speaker's own words, as in (1128). 

1131. The principal kinds of prose compositions are — narrative, 
letters, memoirs* history, biography, essays, philosophy, sermons, nov- 
els* speeches, and orations. 

1132. The principal kinds of poetical composition are — the epi- 
gram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poetry, didactic poetry, sat- 
ires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic 
poetry. 

THE USE OF GRAMMAR IN COMPOSITION. 

1133 To speak and write with propriety, in every species of composition, is an 
attainment of no small importance ; and to lead to this attainment is the business of 
grammar. The^grammar of a language is just a compilation of rules and directions, 
agreeably to which that language is spoken or written. These rules, however, 
are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for their 
validity. As it is the business of the philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor 
to dictate how her operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ascertain what those laws are, and to state them for the information of others ; so 
the business of the grammarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language 
is before grammar, but to observe and note those principles, and forms, and modes 
of speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to arrange 
the results of his observation into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance 
of others; It is obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules 
laid down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage. 

1134. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of speech is 
right, is good English, the only question to be decided is, " Is it according to the 
best usage?" On this subject, however, it has been made a question, " What is 
the best usage?" The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work 
on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and comprehensive of this 
whole subject. 

THE LAW OF LANGUAGE. 

1135. The usage which gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, 
or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be in the first place reputable, by which 
is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men ; but 
of those whose works are esteemed by the public, and who may therefore be de- 
nominated reputable authors. 

1136. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not be confined 
to this or that province or district. " Those," to use Campbell's apposite similitude, 
11 who deviate from the beaten road may be incomparably more numerous than those 
who travel in it ; yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, 
there may not be found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in the king's 
highway." 

1137. Thirdly, this usage must be present. It is difficult to fix with any precision 
what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is perhaps in this respect different 
with different compositions. In general, words and forms of speech, which have 
been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage 
of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, 
and there is a fashion in language as there is in dress. W him, vanity, and affecta- 
tion, delight in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. Now, to 
adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, 
but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any of these main- 
tain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be 
received. , 

1138. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which is generally de- 
nominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present. It happens, 
however, that " good usage" is not always uniform in her decisions, and that in un- 
questionable authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such cases, 
the following canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling to 
decide to which phraseology the preference ought to be given. They are given 
nearly in the words of the author : — 

1139. Qanon 1. — When the usage is divided as to any particular 
words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a 
different meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the 
expression which is strictly univocal should be preferred. 



COMPOSITION. 225 

1140. Canon 2. — In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 

1141. Canon 3. — When expressions are in other respects equal, 
that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear. 

1142. Canon 4. — When none of the preceding rules takes place, 
regard should be had to simplicity. 

1143. Bat though no expression or mode of speech can be justified which is not 
sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that every phraseology sanc- 
tioned by usage should be retained. In many such cases, custom may properly be 
checked by criticism, whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against the in- 
troduction of any word or phraseology which may be either unnecessary or contrary 
to analogy, but also to extrude whatever is reprehensible, though in general use. 
It is by this, her prerogative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. 
In exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, instantly, any phrase- 
ology which she may deem objectionable ; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, 
gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in snch cases may be properly regu- 
lated by the following rules, laid down by the same author : — 

1144. Rule 1. — All words and phrases, particularly harsh and not 
absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 

1145. Rule 2. — When the etymology plainly points to a different 
signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity re- 
quire its dismission. 

1146. Rule 3. — When words become obsolete, or are never used 
but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the 
style an air of vulgarity and cant when this general disuse renders 
them obscure. 

1147. Rule 4. — All words and phrases which, analyzed gram- 
matically, include a solecism, should be dismissed. 

1148. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the estab- 
lished rules of language, either have no meaning, or involve a con- 
tradiction, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey 
a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dis- 
missed. 

1149. In order to write any language with grammatical purity, three things are 
required : — 

1. That the words be all of that language The violation of this rule is called a 
barbarism 

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules of syntax in that 
language. A violation of this rule is called a solecism. 

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has annexed to them. A 
violation of this rule is called impropriety. 

1150. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The ' solecism is an 
offence against the rules of syntax ; and the impropriety is an offence against 
lexicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 

1151. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice 
of words, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be ob- 
served are purity, propriety, and precision. 

PURITY. 

1152. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly 
English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers and speakers. 

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, " Fraicheur," "politesse" — • 
" He repents him of his folly." 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, albeit, aforetime, inspectator, 
judgmatical. 

PROPRIETY. 

1153. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to express 
our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions : as, " To get into a scrape." 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical ; as, " This morn" — 
" The celestial orbs." 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly understand 
them. 

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses ; as, " The 
king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to the secretary, 
who made it known to the public." — " His own reason might have suggested bet- 
ter reasons.' 1 

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete the sense. Thus, 
instead of " This action increased his former services," say, " This action increased 
the merit of his former services." 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, " His memory shall be lost on 
the earth." 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, "I have anopff^veidea 
of what you mean." 

PRECISION. 

1154. Precision rejects superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology; as, " His faithfulness and fidelity were unequalled." 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous. Thus, instead 
of " Though his actions and intentions were good, he lost his character," say, "He 
lost his reputation." 

II. With respect to sentences, clearness, unity, strength, and a 
proper application of the figures of speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

1155. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed as near 
as possible to the words which they affect, and in such a situation as the sense re- 
quires. 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 



COMPOSITION. 



227 



3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they 
stand. 

UNITY. 

1156. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or a series of 
clauses. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no immediate connexion. 

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most prominent, and 
the leading nominative should, if possible, be the subject of every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively remark may be 
thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes before, 

STRENGTH. 

1157. Strength gives to every word and every member its due importance. 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and members. In the fol- 
lowing sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted: "Being 1 conscious 
of his own integrity, he disdained submission." 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the 
strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger: and, when the sentence con- 
sist? of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, where either 
resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance in the language 
and construction should be preserved. 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any inconsiderable 
word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 

1158. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when it serves 
to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not remote 
or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be preserved through- 
out, and different figures never jumbled together. 

TRANSPOSITION. 

1 159. As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, the pupil, 
after he has acquired a knowledge of granmiar, may be exercised with great ad- 
vantage upon the transposition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in 
how many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. This 
will give him a command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source of 
considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new turn 
to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. 

1160. There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a thought 
may be varied : — 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active verb ; as, 
" The sun dissolve* the snow" — " The snow 7 is dissolved by the sun." 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the order in which 
the words stand in the sentence ; as, " Competence may be acquired by industry" 
— "By industry competence may be acquired." 



228 ExNGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an affirmative, 
of an entirely contrary character; as. " Virtue promotes happiness" — " Virtue does 
not promote misery/' 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words employed to express any 
sentiment ; as, *•' Diligence and application are the best means of improvement" — 
" Nothing promotes improvement like diligence and application." 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 
The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. I 
am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be done with safety. A good 
man has respect to the feelings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to 
contend for a good cause is noble ; silently to suffer for it is heroic. 

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. In 
proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state evidently declined. The 
Roman state, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSIOJ*. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be moved by 
false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall attend the meeting, if I can do it 
with convenience. He who improves in modesty as he improves in knowledge, 
has an undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes 
gentleness and affability. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister s conduct was 
more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting was entitled to more 
praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise than that of his sister, &c 

1161. Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for composition, 
consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list of words, with direc- 
tions to form from them such sentences as shall contain these words. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or more of the 
following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, elevation, distance, appli- 
cation, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurd- 
ity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, &c. 



1162. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition is letter- 
writing. This species of composition may be practised either by way of real cor- 
respondence between those pursuing the same studies, or it may consist of letters 
written to imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adapted to 
composition of this latter kind : — 

Letter 1.— Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object of your writ- 
ing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how you like them. Mention 
how yourself and friends are. Give an account of some of the alterations which 
have been lately made, or are now making, in your neighborhood ; and conclude by 
expressing your desire to either see him or he a f from him soon. 



COMPOSITION. 229 

Letter 2. — Write to a companion an account of a long walk which you lately 
had. Tell him whether you were alone or in company. Mention what particular 
things struck you by the way ; and enumerate all the incidents that occurred of 
any moment. 

Letter 3. — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a present of books, 
and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use you intend to make of them ; 
and inform him to what particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giv- 
ing some account of those you have been lately reading, and how you like them. 

Letter 4. — Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. Describe to him how 
you would feel if called to leave your friends and your native country. Express 
your regret at losing him, but state your hope that you will not forget each other 
when seas roll between you. Request him to write to you frequently ; and advise 
him to be careful about his health, and of the society he keeps. 

Letter 5. — Write to a friend at a distance, and give him an account of a sail 
which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what places you visited, and state 
the objects that most delighted you. Tell him how long you were away, what 
sort of weather you had, and what were your feelings upon returning home. 

Letter 6. — Write to a friend an account of the church you were at last Sabbath. 
Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns that were sung, and the por- 
tions of Scripture that were read. State the texts from which the minister preach- 
ed ; and give your opinion of the different sermons. 

1163. These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon which the 
student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be required to write. 
The prudent and skilful teacher will be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleas- 
ure to any extent. 

REPRODUCTION. 

1164. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in composition, consists 
in reading some simple story or narrative, till such time as they are acquainted 
with the facts, and then directing them to express these in their own words. A 
still further, and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of a young 
person's having given some account of what he has either seen, heard, or read, and 
desire him to commit to writing what he has stated orally. 



1165. The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. The sub- 
ject, however, should always be such as is not above the capacity of the person 
who is desired to compose, or, if it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise 
will be nullified. 

1166. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required to write ; 
or the dissertation that has been written upon such a subject. Some of the simplest 
subjects for themes are those drawn from natural history, or natural philosophy. 
At all events they should not, in the first instance, be drawn from subjects of an 
abstruse and abstract character. 

1167. The following may serve as specimens in this department : — 

Theme 1. — The horse. — 1. Describe what sort of animal the horse is. 2. Tell 
some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the various ways in which this noble ani- 
mal is serviceable to man. 4. State what would be the consequence of wanting 
him. 5. Mention the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using 
such a creature. 

20 



S30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep) poultry ; and follow the same 
plan as that followed in writing upon the horse. 

Theme 2. — The sun.— 1. Begin by stating what the sUn is. 2. Tell all you 
know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 3. Mention the effect it has 
upon the earth, and the benefits we derive from it. 4. State what would be the 
consequence if the sun were extinguished ; and what our feelings ought to be 
toward the Supreme Being for such an object. 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars^ fire, air, and water; and in all follow 
the same plan 

Theme 3. --Day and night.— 1. Tell what you mean by day and night 2. 
State whether they are always alike long, and what is the advantage arising from 
their lengths being different at different seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes 
for which they are adapted. 4. Say of what the continued succession of day and 
night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, rivers, and the 
tides of the sea. > and follow a similar plan in the whole. 

Theme 4. — On composition.— 1. Explain what you mean by this term. 2. Point 
out the necessity of studying this art, by showing how much it contributes to add 
to the value of one's knowledge. 3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for com- 
posing well. 4. State the means by which skill in this art is to be obtained. 

Theme 5. — On company. — 1. Explain w~hat you mean by company. 2. Show- 
how natural it is for man to seek society. 3. State the danger of keeping either 
too much company, or of keeping bad company, 4. Point out the advantages of 
good company. 

Write themes upon conversation, study, improvement of time, choice of books, 
memory, and the different organs of se?ise, &c. ; and in all follow the same method 
as you did in writing on Company. 

Theme 6.— Narratives, — Describe the place or scene of the actions related, the 
persons concerned in, the time> posture of affairs, state of mind, motives, ends, &c., 
of the actors ; results. 

Write themes upon the discovery of America, the French war, the Revolution- 
ary war, the battle of Bunker's Hill, the French revolution. 

Theme 7. — Dissertations on remarkable events in sacred or profane history. — 
The place, the origin, the circumstances, results, moral influence, &c. 

Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a composition on : the 
creation, death of Abel, the deluge, the world after the flood, the tower of Babel, 
the Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from it, the giving of the law from 
Sinai, the advent of the Messiah — his death — resurrection, destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, fyc, the siege of Troy, rise and fall of the Roman empire, the crusades, the 
burning of Moscotv, the battle of Waterloo, the death of Bonaparte, &c. 

Theme 8. — Give an account of some of the most distinguished characters in differ- 
ent ages of the world— warriors, statesmen, artists, philosophers, poets, orators, philan- 
thropists, divines — mentioning what is known respecting their country, parentage, 
education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for good or evil, death. 

1168. The following list of themes is selected from Parker's Exercises in 
Composition : — 

1. On Attention, 4. On Art, 7. On Air, 

2. " Adversity, 5. " Attachment, local, 8. " Benevolence, 

3. " Ardor of Mind, 6. u Anger, 9. " Beauty, 



COMPOSITION. 



231 



10. 


On Biography, 


32. 


On Genius, 


54. 


On Poverty, 


11. 


* Bad Scholar, 


33, 


- Habit, 


55. 


" Principle, 


12. 


" Charity. 


34. 


" Honor, 


56. 


" Perseverance, 


13. 


M Clemency, 


35. 


u Happiness, 


57. 


" Patriotism, 


14. 


u Compassion, 


36. 


" Humility, 


58. 


" Politeness, 


15. 


u Conscience,. 


37. 


" Hypocrisy, 


59. 


u Providence, 


16. 


* Constancy, 


38. 


" History*, 


60. 


" Punctuality, 


17. 


" Carelessness, 


39. 


" Hope, 


61. 


" Poetry, 


18. 


■ Curiosity, 


40. 


" Indolence, 


62. 


- Piety' 


19. 


" Cheerfulness. 


41. 


" Industry, 


63. 


" Religion, 


20. 


'• Contentment, 


42. 


■ Ingratitude, 


64. 


" Reading, 


21. 


" Diligence, 


43. 


■■ Justice, 


65. 


" Sincerity, 


22. 


" Duplicity, 


44, 


u Learning, 


66. 


u Summer, 


23. 


■ Early Rising, 


45. 


" Love of Fame, 


67. 


u Spring, 


24. 


■' Envy, 


46. 


" Music, 


63. 


< Sun, 


25. 


" Friendship, 


47. 


" Moon, 


69. 


•• System, 


26. 


" Fortune, 


48. 


•' Novelty, 


70, 


u Truth, 


27. 


" Fear, 


49. 


" Night. 


71. 


" Time, 


28. 


" Forgiveness, 


50. 


" Order, 


72. 


" Talent, 


29. 


u Government, 


51. 


•' Ocean. 


73. 


'• Vanity, 


30. 


" Grammar, 


52, 


M Pride. 


74. 


u Virtue, 


31. 


M Greatness, true, 


53. 


M Party Spirit, 


75. 


" Wealth, 



76. Knowledge is Power. 

77. Progress of Error, 

78. Progress of Truth, 

79 Government of the Tongue, 

80. Government of the Temper, 

81. Government of the Affections, 

82. Local Attachments, 

83. The Power of Association, 

84. The Immortality of the Soul, 
65. The Uses of Knowledge, 

86. Power of Conscience, 

87. The Power of Habit, 

88. Life is Short, 

89. Miseries of Idleness 



91. Public Opinion, 

92. Diligence insures Success, 

93. Idleness destroys Character, 

94. Contrivance proves Design, 

95. Avoid Extremes, 

96. Visit to an Almshouse, 

97. Pleasures of Memory, 

98. Example better than Precept, 

99. Misery is wed to Guilt, 

100. Value of Time. 

101. Virtue, the way to Happiness, 

102. No one lives for Himself, 

103. Thou God seest me, 

104. Trust not Appearances, 

105. Whatever is, is Risht. 



90. Never too old to learn, 

106. " An honest man's the noblest work of God."' 

107. Even' man the architect of his own fortune. 

108. Man. ••' Mysterious link in being's endless chain."' 

109. •• A little learning is a dangerous thing." 

110. How blessings brighten, as they take their flight. 

111. Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass — of the 

telescope — the steam-engine — the art of printing — of gunpowder. 

112. History of a needle — a cent — a Bible — a beaver hat. 

113. Description of a voyage to England— coast of Africa — Constantinople — 

South America — East Indies— China. 



APPENDIX. 



APPENDIX I. 

THE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, ETC. 

Some grammarians have given it as their opinion that mine, thine, ours, yours, 
theirs, are not pronouns in the possessive case, but that they are something or other 
in the nominative or objective case, but never in the possessive. This is surely a 
very singular notion. The anomaly which such an idea would introduce into our 
language, would be a curious one. According to this view, these words could be- 
long to no part of speech hitherto defined. They are not nouns, for they are not 
the names of anything— nor adjectives, for they do not qualify nouns, nor can ever 
be joined with them — nor pronouns, for they never stand instead of a noun, but 
always instead of a noun and a possessive pronoun together. They have always 
the sense of the possessive case, and are always construed just as the possessive 
case of a noun is, not followed by a noun ; and yet they are never in the possessive 
case. These words, standing by themselves, have no fixed or determinate mean- 
ing, and yet in sentences they may have as many different meanings as there are 
objects capable of being possessed. Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my 
farm, my hat, my stick, my gun, my — anything you please. And besides this, 
those of them which are singular in form, according to analogy, may have a plural 
verb, and those of them which are plural may have a singular verb ; thus, " John's 
books are new; mine are old;" again, "John's house is built of stone; ours is 
built of brick." Such is the result to which this notion leads us ; and if these words 
are not possessives, but in the nominative or objective, as some allege, there cer- 
tainly are no more curious words in the English, or in any other language. 



APPENDIX TI. 
What as a relative. 

"Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the relative what 
It is said to be ' a compound relative pronoun, including both the antecedent and 
the relative, and equivalent to that which, or, the thing which. 7 Though this may 
seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examination, that what is nothing more than 
a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sentences : — 

" ' I saw whom I wanted to see' — 

" ' I saw what I wanted to see.' 

" If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing which, whom, in 
the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom. * Who steals my 
purse steals trash/ is equivalent to he who, or, the man who. 

u And. on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the antecedent should 
be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. Thus, ' I saw 



APPENDIX IS US EVER A RELATIVE? 233 

the man I wanted to see.' Here, man should be represented as equivalent to the 
man whom. 

" The oause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antecedent is never ex- 
pressed with it. It is not like the word who, which is used both when the antecedent 
is expressed, and when it is omitted. The relative that, however, was formerly 
used in many cases where we use what, that is, with the antecedent omitted. A 
few examples of this will help us to ascertain the nature of what : ' We speak 
that we do know.' — English Bible. — ' I am that I am.' — lb. 

" ' Who had been seen imagine mote thereby, 

That whylome of Hercules hath been told/ — Spenser. 
" ' Eschewe that wicked is.' — Gower. 
" ' Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he is.' — Shaks. 

u ' Gather the sequel by that went before.' — lb. 
" In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous with what. 
No one would contend, that that stands for itself, and its antecedent at the same 
time. The antecedent is omitted because it is indefinite, or easily supplied."— 
Butler's Grammar, p. 48. 

These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point. 



APPENDIX III. 

IS as EVER A RELATIVE? 

That the word as should not be considered a relative in any circumstances, 1 
think is plain from the following considerations : — 

1. It has neither the meaning, nor the use of a relative. Its office is simply to 
connect things compared, and, together with its antecedent word, to express the 
idea of equality, likeness, &c, between them ; thus, " James is as tall as his father." 
— " Your hat is such as mine." 

2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before it, called the an- 
tecedent nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but is related only to the 
comparative word, as, such, so, &c, in the preceding clause. Thus, in the sen- 
tence, " As many as received liim," the second as relates to the first, and the two 
convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send such books as you have." Here, as 
refers not to books, but to such. Take away such, and as can not be used. 

3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun, nor another 
relative pronoun as a substitute for it. If, then, it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say 
the least, a very unaccommodating one. 

4. In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has the same 
meaning and use as in those in which it is allowed to be only a conjunction. Com- 
pare the following examples : "As many as five men received a reward." — "As 
many as received him." — "As many as they can give." In all these, the phrase 
" as many as" means, and is felt to mean, the same thing — equality of number. 
There surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the second as a conjunction in 
the first sentence, and a relative in the other two. The same thing will be evident 
if we change the antecedent word. Thus, " Such books as these are useful." — 
" Such books as are useful." — " Such books as you can give." 

5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a relative pronoun, 
for the same reasons alleged for this, the word than must be a relative id those 
which follow. The construction is precisely the same : " More than five books 

20* 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

were wanted." — ' More books than are useful." — " More books than you can give/ 
Now, if, in the second of these examples, than is not a relative in the nominative 
case before are, nor in the third a relative in the objective case after can give, what 
need for considering as a relative in the same position, in the same construction, and 
for the same purpose, to denote comparison ? There is the same ellipsis in both, 
and the same words necessary to be supplied, in the one case, as in the other. 
Thus, " More books than [those which] were wanted." — " More books than [those 
which] are useful," &c. So, " Such books as [those which] were wanted." — " As 
many books as [those which] are necessary," &c. 



APPENDIX IV. 

THE VERB. 

Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among grammarians, as to 
what a verb is, yet all have probably found it a difficult matter to give an accurate 
and at the same time a brief definition of it«; and, accordingly, nearly all grammars 
differ in their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that " a verb is a 
word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer" though unexceptionable as any, as 
far as it goes, is yet greatly defective in stating nothing respecting the function or 
use of this part of speech. 

The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare, and that of 
which it affirms is called its subject or nominative. This is always the office of the 
verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunctive. In the use of its other parts, how- 
ever, namely, the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no affir- 
mation, though the action or state expressed by the verb in these parts is clearly 
seen to be the act or state of some person or thing, and which for that reason is 
strictly and properly, though not technically, its subject. Thus, " For me to die is 
gain," is a simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to die, in the 
infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, without affirming, attributes 
dying to a person, expressed by the word me. So when we say, " I see a man 
walking," the word walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is 
properly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this," the verb do at- 
tributes action imperatively to the person addressed, but there is no affirmation. To 
speak of " affirming imperatively" is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want 
of a better expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. 

For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is " a part of speech 
which asserts or affirms" appears to me to be defective. It states one function of 
this class of words, but excludes, or at least does not include, others. It gives, as 
the distinguishing characteristic of a verb, that which does not belong to it in sev- 
eral of its parts and uses. It is too restrictive. 

The definition formerly given in my " Principles of English Grammar," is liable 
to an objection of an opposite kind : it is too general, and not sufficiently dfstinctive. 
A verb does, indeed, " express an action or state" but there are other words that 
do so also. Nouns, such as love, desire, wish, hope, Sec, and most verbal nouns, 
such as eruption, fiction, collision, diffusion, progression, Sec, express action, and 
many words, both nouns and adjectives, express a state. 

The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexceptionable, occupies a 
middle place between these extremes, avoids the indefiniteness of the old definition, 
and is probably less liable to objection than most of those which have been given. 



APPENDIX PRESENT-INDICATIVE, ETC. 235 



APPENDIX V. 

THE PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE, AND THE PARTICIPLE IN ing IN A PASSIVE 

SENSE. 

According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, passively, the same 
thing that the active does actively. For example, " Caesar conquered Gaul," and 
'• Gaul was conquered by Caesar.'" express precisely the same idea. This, how- 
ever, is not always done by the regular passive form in the present tense, though 
it generally is done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at once that the ex- 
pressions, " Caesar conquers Gaul," and " Gaul is conquered by Caesar," do not 
express the same tiling. 

In regard to this matter, there are evidently two classes of verbs ; namely, those 
whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing, passively, as the active 
voice does actively, and those in which it does not. 

I. To the Jirst of these classes belong — 

1. All those verbs which, in the regular present-passive, imply a continuance of 
the act ; such as to love, to hate, to regard, to esteem, to envy, to please, &c. Thus, 
"James loves me," and " I am loved by James," express precisely the same idea, 
and consequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as in the 
active. Hence, "is loved" is a true passive, in both form and meaning. In verbs 
of this class the progressive form in the active voice is seldom used, because it would 
express the same thing generally as the common form ; thus, " James loves me," 
and "James is loving me," express the same thing. 

2. To this class belong all verbs when used to express general truths, or what 
is usual or customary from time to time. Thus, " Vinegar dissolves pearls" — 
u Vice produces misery" — " The cobbler mends shoes" — " Masons build houses," 
&c. These verbs, used'f/i this way, express precisely the same thing in the regu- 
lar passive form as they do in the active. Thus, u Pearls are dissolved by vinegar" 
— " Miseiy is produced by vice" — " Shoes are mended by the cobbler" — " Houses 
are built by masons," &c. In verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not 
employed. The use of it would change the meaning from a general expression to 
a particular act. Thus. u Vice is producing misery," would immediately direct the 
mind, not to a general truth, but to a particular case. But, again, when these 
verbs express a particular act, and not a general truth, the active and passive pres- 
ent express different ideas ; thus, " James builds a house," represents an act in 
progress ; but when we say, " A house is built by James," the act is represented as 
completed. 

3. To this class belong all verbs which, by the figure called vision (1045-5), are 
used in the present tense to express what is past. Thus, " Caesar leaves Gaul, 
crosses the Rubicon, enters Italy." Passively, ' Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubi- 
con is crossed, Italy is entered:' In all these, used in this figurative way, the 
present-passive expresses the same thing as the present- active. 

II. The second class of verbs consists of those (perhaps the greater number) 
whose present-passive implies that the act expressed by the active voice has ceased, 
and the effect or result only remains as a finished act, and as such is predicated of 
the subject. Thus, u The house is built." Here it is implied that the act of build- 
ings is completed, and has ceased, and the result, expressed by built, is predicated 
of the house. In all verbs of this kind, the past participle, after the verb to be, has 
reference to the state resulting from the act as predicated of, or qualifying the sub- 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strictly speaking, then, the past participle 
with the verb to be is not the present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used ; 
that is, this form does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs 
either have no present-passive, or it is made by annexing the participle in ing, in 
its passive sense, to the verb to be ; as, " The house is building." 

It is supposed by some that " is built," though in the form of the present-passive, 
really is a present-perfect ; because it represents the act as completed, and because 
the perfect-definite, in Latin, is often translated by this form into English. Due 
consideration, however, I think will show that it differs quite as much from the 
present perfect as it does from the present. To be satisfied of this, compare the 
following expressions : "This garment is torn," merely asserts the present state 
of the garment, with no reference to the act but what is implied. But when we 
say, " This garment has been torn" the reference is chiefly to the act as having 
been done, with no reference to the state of the garment but what is implied. The 
one asserts that the garment remains torn, the other does not — it may have been 
mended : the latter is the regular passive of the present-perfect active, the former is 
not. This will perhaps be more clearly perceived by means of another example : 
" This house has been painted, but the paint is worn off." This is good English. 
But if we say, " This house is painted, but the paint is worn off,'* we would assert 
a contradiction. 

There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding to the progressive 
form in the active voice, except where it is made by the participle in ing, in a pas- 
sive sense ; thus, " The house is building" — " The garments are making" — " Wheat 
is selling," &c. An attempt has been made by some grammarians, of late, to ban- 
ish such expressions from the language, though they have been used in all time 
past by the best writers, and to justify and defend a clumsy solecism, Which has 
been introduced within the last forty years, chiefly through the newspaper press, 
but which has gained such currency, and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it 
seems likely to prevail, with all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such ex- 
pressions as " The house is being built"—-" The letter is being written" — " The 
mine is being worked" — " The news is being telegraphed," &c, &c. 

Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed — 

1. That it had no existence in the language till within the last forty years. This, 
indeed, would not make it wrong, were it otherwise unexceptionable, but it shows 
that it is not, as is pretended, a necessary form ; and in some measure accounts for 
the insolence and effrontery with which, like all upstarts, it seeks to override and 
bear down that which is venerable for its antiquity, and commended by its pro- 
priety. 

2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to express what it is in- 
tended to express, and would be used only by such as are either ignorant of its 
import, or are careless and loose in their use of language. To make this manifest, 
let it be considered, first, that there is no progressive form of the verb to be, and no 
need of it : hence, there is no such expression in English as is being. Of course, 
the expression "is being built," for example, is not a compound of is being and 
built, but of is and being built ; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle 
passive. Now, let it be observed that the only verbs in which the present parti- 
ciple passive expresses a continued action are those mentioned above as the first 
class, in which the regular passive form expresses a continuance of the action ; as, 
is loved, is desired, &c, and in which of course the form in question (is being built) 



APPENDIX PARTICIPLE IN ING. 237 

is not required. Nobody would think of saying, " He is being loved" — " This re- 
sult is being desired/'' 

In all other verbs, then, the present participle passive, like the present tense, in 
the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, not a continued action, or the 
continued receiving of an action, bat that the action has ceased, and the result only 
exists in a finished state. Thus, " Our arrangements being made, we departed." — 
" The house being finished, was immediately occupied." — "Our work being fin- 
ished, we may rest," &c. In all such expressions, the present participle passive 
represents the action as now finished, and existing only in its results (509). This 
finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, by being asserted 
of a subject,_which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence, it is 
manifest that is being built, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more than is 
built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed. 

3. For the same reason that is being built, &c, is contended for as a proper ex- 
pression, we should contend also for " Has been being built" — "Had been being 
built" — " Shall have been being built" — " Might have been being built" — " To be 
being built" — •' To have been being built" — " Being being built" — " Having been 
being built." When all these shall have been introduced, our language will be 
rich indeed. 

4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an established usage of 
the language, namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the participle in ing (457), 
In reference to this, it is flippantly asked. " What does the house build V — " What 
does the letter write," &c. — taking for granted, without attempting to prove, that 
the participle in ing can not have a passive sense in any verb. The following are 
a few examples from writers of the best reputation, which this novelty would con- 
demn : " While the ceremonj 7 was performing." — Tom Brown. " The court was 
then holding." — Sir G. M'Kenzie. " And still be being, never done." — Butler. 
" The books are selling." — Allen's Gram. " The work of the temple was carry- 
ing on." — Dr. Owen. " To know nothing of what is transacting in the regions 
above us." — Dr. Blair. u The spot where this new and strange tragedy was act- 
ing." — E. Everett. " The fortress was building." — Irving. " An attempt is ma- 
king in the English parliament." — D. Webster. " The church now erecting in the 
city of New York." — N. A. Review. " This movement was making." — Cooper. 
u These things were transacting in England " — Bancroft. 

5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judgment of the 
most distinguished grammarians and critics, who have considered the subject, and 
expressed their views concerning it. The following are a specimen : " Expres- 
sions of this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably 
of far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far better taste, than 
the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead ; as, 
' The books are now being sold.' " — Goold Brown. De War observes : " The 
participle in ing is also passive in many instances ; as, ' The house is building' — 
' I heard of a plan forming,' " &c. — Quoted in Frazee's Grammar, page 49. " It 
would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up the only way we have of denoting the 
incomplete state of action by a passive form" (viz., by the participle in ing in the 
passive sense). — Arnold's English Grammar, p. 46. " The present participle is 
often used passively ; as, ' The ship is building.' The form of expression, is being 
built, is being committed, Sec, is almost universally condemned by grammarians, 
but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers ; it occurs most frequently in 
newspaper paragraphs and in hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal and 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Critical Dictionary." — Weld's Grammar, pp. 118 and 180. "When we say, 
* The house is building,' the advocates of the new theory ask, ' Building what V 
We might ask, in turn, when you say, ' The field ploughs well' — • Ploughs what?' 
— * Wheat sells well.' — ' Sells -what V If usage allows us to say, ' Wheat sells at 
a dollar/ in a sense which is not active, why may it not also allow us to say wheat 
is selling at a dollar, in a sense that is not active?" — Hart's Gram., p. 76. " The 
prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form ; as, ' The house 
is building.' " — Wells's School Gram., p. 148. " Several other expressions of this sort 
now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism ' is being 1 
done,' for the good old English idiom l is doing-' — an absurd paraphrasis driving 
out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language." — N. A. Review, quoted by 
Mr. Wells, p. 148. 



APPENDIX VI. 

THE PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE, IN ABRIDGED PHRASES. 

Respecting the case of the noun or pronoun, in such phrases as " To be & for- 
eigner" — " His being a lawyer" — " Its being he," &c, there has been some diver- 
sity of opinion. To say nothing of others, an opinion was hazarded in my " Prin- 
ciples of English Grammar," p. 82, that such words are in the objective case. Mr. 
Butler, in his excellent grammar, p. 146, has reasoned the case, and shown clearly 
by reference to a similar construction in German, which has a closer analogy to the 
English than the Latin or Greek has, that it is simply the predicate-nominative. 
The German construction referred to is as follows: "Der [not den] sclave der Lei- 
denschaft zu seyn" — To be the slave of passion. " Des Ruf ein guter Prinz zu 
seyn" {not, einen guten Prinz en) — The reputation of being [to be] a good prince. 
I have, accordingly, adopted the correction. Mr. Samuel S. Greene, in his inge- 
nious work on the structure of the English language, has come to the same conclu- 
sion. — See note to page 170. 



APPENDIX VII. 

FIRST AND SECOND, ETC. 

Two or more adjectives connected, without an article intervening, belong to the 
same noun ; as, " A red and white rose" — that is, one rose partly red and partly 
white. Hence, care should be taken to see that the qualities expressed by adjec- 
tives so used be consistent, or such as may be found in one object. Thus, it would 
be improper to say, "An old and young man" — " A round and square hole" — "A 
hot and cold spring" — because a man can not be old and young at the same time ; 
nor a hole round and square; nor a spring hot and cold. Hence — 

When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to different objects 
of the same name, and that name expressed only with the last, the article should 
be placed before each adjective. Thus, " A red and a white rose" means two 
roses — one red, and one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the 
qualities expressed by the adjectives be consistent or not. since they belong to dif- 
ferent individuals. Thus, we can say, " A young and an old man" — " A round and 
a square hole" — " a hot and a cold spring" — that is, one man young, and another 
old, &c. It is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first and sec- 
ond page" — " The fifth and sixth verse" — " The Old and New Testament" — be- 
cause no page can be at once first and second— no verse fifth and sixth, and no 



APPENDIX TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, E$C. 239 

Testament Old and New. It is equally improper in principle to say, " The first 
and second pages"—" The fifth and sixth verses," because two adjectives can not 
be joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it separately. We 
can not say " the first pages," nor " the second pages," when we mean but one 
first and one second. Besides, when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands "the first 
page and the second page," and the omission of the first noun can not, on any cor- 
rect principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, too, the use of the 
plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity of uniting inconsistent qualities in an 
object, will as certainly lead into ambiguity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of say- 
ing " the old and young man," we say " the old and young men," the latter expres- 
sion may mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men, instead of two— one 
young and one old. Notwithstanding, however, usage has prevailed over principle 
in this as well as in other cases ; and it has become quite common to say, " The 
first and second verses" — " The Old and New Testaments" — " The hot and cold 
spring-g" — « The indicative and subjunctive moods." &c. Where no ambiguity 
exists in the use of such expressions, they must be tolerated. The correct expres- 
sion, however, in all cases in which one is intended, is made by repeating the arti- 
cle with the adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular ; thus, " The first 
and the second verse"—" The Old and the New Testament"—" The hot and the 
cold spring," &c. Or, " The first verse and the second." &c. 



APPENDIX VIII. 

TWO FIRST — THREE LAST, ETC. 

The expressions, two first, three last, and the like, have been opposed and ridi- 
culed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that there can be only one first, and 
one last. The objectors evidently have not well considered their position ; for — 

1. The terms^rs£ and last do not necessarily mean only one. First, according 
to Webster, means, " preceding all others.'' The two first, then, means the two 
preceding all others, and the three last means the three succeeding all others — ex- 
pressions in which there is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd. 

2. If we say, " The first days of summer" — " The first years of our life" — " The 
last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, then, it is not true that there can be 
only one first and one last, and so the ground of the objection fails. If w r e can 
say, " The last days of summer," why not the two last, or the three last 1 

3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in the language, and 
has been in use hundreds of years, and therefore, on the well-known maxim, " Usage 
is the law of language," if it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following 
are examples, most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells : " The four first acts." — Bp. 
Berkeley. — " The three first monarchies." — Warburton. — " The two first persons." 
— Latham's Eng. Gram. — " My two last letters." — Addison. — " The two first 
lines." — Blair. — " The three first generations." — E. Everett. — " The two first 
years." — Bancroft. — " The two first days." — Irving. — " The two first cantos." — 
A. H. Everett. — " The four first centuries." — Prescott. — " The two last produc- 
tions." — N. A. Review. — " The four first are — poetical." — Cheever. — " The three 
first of his longer poems." — Southey. — " The two last schools." — Johnson. — " The 
six first French kings." — Macaulay. 

4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the other. It is prob- 
ably always so, when the number characterized as first or last constitutes a major- 



l 

**U • ENGLISH GRAMMAR, y/>~ 

fry of the whole. When we say, " the first four," there is evidently a reference t* 
a second four, or a last four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the whole, 
there remains no second four to justify the reference. Thus, when we say, "The 
first four acts of a play were well performed," there remains only one to which an} 
other reference can be made. On the other hand, when a whole is divided intc 
equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence of the censur 
every five years— of the Olympic games every four— of the sabbath every sevei. 
days— of four lines in each stanza of a poem, and the like— then the expression, 
first four, second four, last four, &c, is preferable, because it implies a reference 
to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no such reference, it i. 
often properly used, especially when the number is large ; as u The first hundred 
— " The last thousand," &c. 

5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have examined this point, 
and expressed their views respecting it as follows : " It has been doubted whethe; 
the cardinal should precede or follow the ordinal numeral." — Atterbury says in one 
of his letters to Pope : " Not but that the four first lines are good." — '• We conceive 
the expression to be quite correct, though the other form be often employed to 
denote the same conception." — Cro?n tie's English Syntax, p. 240. — " Some gram- 
marians object to the use of the numerals two, four, &c, before the adjectives first 
and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the objection, and the 
expressions two first, two last^ &c., are fully sanctioned by good usage." — Wells's 
Grammar, p. 137.— -The following is a note on the same page : " It has been fash- 
ionable of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the three first. People 
write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity of implying that more than one 
thing can he first ; but it is at least equally as absurd to talk about the first four, 
when, as often happens, there is no second four."— Arnold. — ° ;i Surely if there can 
he only one last, one first, there can be only * a last one,' l - afirsl one.' I need only 
observe, that usage is decidedly in favor of the former phraseology." — Grant. 

" The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor of substitutingj£rs£ 
two, so far as I can recollect, is this : In the nature of things, there can be only one 
first and one last in any series of things. But is it true that there can never be 
more than one first, and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and last 
must always be of the singular number, and can never agree with nouns in the 
plural. ' We are told that the first years of a lawyer's practice are seldom very 
lucrative.' — ' The poet tells us that his first essays were severely handled by the 
critics, but his last efforts have been well received.' Examples like these might be 
produced, without number ; they occur everywhere, in all our standard writers. 
* * * When a numeral adjective, and a qualifying epithet, both refer to the 
same noun, the general rule of the English language is to place the numeral first, 
then the qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus we say, ' The two wise 
men' — 4 The two tall men,' and not ' The wise two men' — ' The tall two men/ 
And the same rule holds in superlatives. We say, ' The two -wisest men' — ' The 
two tallest men/ and not ' The wisest two men' — ' The tallest two men/ Now, if 
this be admitted to be the general rule of the English language, then it follows that 
generally we should say, i The two first,' — ' The two last,' Sec., rather than ' The 
first two,' — ' The last iico.' &c. This, I say, should generally be the order of the 
words. Yet there are some cases in which it seems preferable to say, ' Theirs* 
two'—* The last two' Sec." — Dr. Murdoch. 

THE END. 



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